diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/AbstractSpawnStrategy.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/AbstractSpawnStrategy.java
index 206f92d..913a323 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/AbstractSpawnStrategy.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/AbstractSpawnStrategy.java
@@ -15,10 +15,12 @@
 package com.google.devtools.build.lib.exec;
 
 import static com.google.common.util.concurrent.Futures.immediateVoidFuture;
+import static com.google.common.util.concurrent.MoreExecutors.directExecutor;
 
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 import com.google.common.base.Strings;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
+import com.google.common.util.concurrent.Futures;
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.ListenableFuture;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionContext;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionContext;
@@ -48,6 +50,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.exec.SpawnRunner.SpawnExecutionContext;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.Profiler;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.SilentCloseable;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.BulkTransferException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails.FailureDetail;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails.Spawn.Code;
@@ -246,13 +249,35 @@
     public ListenableFuture<Void> prefetchInputs()
         throws IOException, ForbiddenActionInputException {
       if (Spawns.shouldPrefetchInputsForLocalExecution(spawn)) {
-        return actionExecutionContext
-            .getActionInputPrefetcher()
-            .prefetchFiles(
-                getInputMapping(PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT, /* willAccessRepeatedly= */ true)
-                    .values(),
-                getMetadataProvider(),
-                Priority.MEDIUM);
+        return Futures.catchingAsync(
+            actionExecutionContext
+                .getActionInputPrefetcher()
+                .prefetchFiles(
+                    getInputMapping(PathFragment.EMPTY_FRAGMENT, /* willAccessRepeatedly= */ true)
+                        .values(),
+                    getMetadataProvider(),
+                    Priority.MEDIUM),
+            BulkTransferException.class,
+            (BulkTransferException e) -> {
+              if (BulkTransferException.allCausedByCacheNotFoundException(e)) {
+                var code =
+                    executionOptions.useNewExitCodeForLostInputs
+                        ? Code.REMOTE_CACHE_EVICTED
+                        : Code.REMOTE_CACHE_FAILED;
+                throw new EnvironmentalExecException(
+                    e,
+                    FailureDetail.newBuilder()
+                        .setMessage(
+                            "Failed to fetch blobs because they do not exist remotely."
+                                + " Build without the Bytes does not work if your remote"
+                                + " cache evicts blobs during builds.")
+                        .setSpawn(FailureDetails.Spawn.newBuilder().setCode(code))
+                        .build());
+              } else {
+                throw e;
+              }
+            },
+            directExecutor());
       }
 
       return immediateVoidFuture();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/BUILD b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/BUILD
index 168ac13..36439c3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/BUILD
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/BUILD
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions:artifacts",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/events",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/profiler",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/common:bulk_transfer_exception",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util:command",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util/io",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs",
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/AbstractActionInputPrefetcher.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/AbstractActionInputPrefetcher.java
index a97c3b05..df11197 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/AbstractActionInputPrefetcher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/AbstractActionInputPrefetcher.java
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@
 import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.RxFutures.toListenableFuture;
 import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.RxUtils.mergeBulkTransfer;
 import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.RxUtils.toTransferResult;
-import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.Utils.getFromFuture;
 
 import com.google.auto.value.AutoValue;
 import com.google.common.annotations.VisibleForTesting;
@@ -277,11 +276,6 @@
 
   protected void prefetchVirtualActionInput(VirtualActionInput input) throws IOException {}
 
-  /** Transforms the error encountered during the prefetch . */
-  protected Completable onErrorResumeNext(Throwable error) {
-    return Completable.error(error);
-  }
-
   /**
    * Fetches remotely stored action outputs, that are inputs to this spawn, and stores them under
    * their path in the output base.
@@ -323,8 +317,7 @@
 
     Completable prefetch =
         Completable.using(
-                () -> dirCtx, ctx -> mergeBulkTransfer(transfers), DirectoryContext::close)
-            .onErrorResumeNext(this::onErrorResumeNext);
+            () -> dirCtx, ctx -> mergeBulkTransfer(transfers), DirectoryContext::close);
 
     return toListenableFuture(prefetch);
   }
@@ -427,30 +420,11 @@
     return null;
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Downloads file into the {@code path} with its metadata.
-   *
-   * <p>The file will be written into a temporary file and moved to the final destination after the
-   * download finished.
-   */
-  private Completable downloadFileRx(
-      DirectoryContext dirCtx,
-      Path path,
-      @Nullable Path treeRoot,
-      @Nullable ActionInput actionInput,
-      FileArtifactValue metadata,
-      Priority priority) {
-    if (!canDownloadFile(path, metadata)) {
-      return Completable.complete();
-    }
-    return downloadFileNoCheckRx(dirCtx, path, treeRoot, actionInput, metadata, priority);
-  }
-
   private Completable downloadFileNoCheckRx(
       DirectoryContext dirCtx,
       Path path,
       @Nullable Path treeRoot,
-      @Nullable ActionInput actionInput,
+      ActionInput actionInput,
       FileArtifactValue metadata,
       Priority priority) {
     if (path.isSymbolicLink()) {
@@ -492,7 +466,7 @@
                 /* eager= */ false)
             .doOnError(
                 error -> {
-                  if (error instanceof CacheNotFoundException && actionInput != null) {
+                  if (error instanceof CacheNotFoundException) {
                     missingActionInputs.add(actionInput);
                   }
                 });
@@ -508,37 +482,6 @@
             }));
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Download file to the {@code path} with given metadata. Blocking await for the download to
-   * complete.
-   *
-   * <p>The file will be written into a temporary file and moved to the final destination after the
-   * download finished.
-   */
-  public void downloadFile(Path path, @Nullable ActionInput actionInput, FileArtifactValue metadata)
-      throws IOException, InterruptedException {
-    getFromFuture(downloadFileAsync(path.asFragment(), actionInput, metadata, Priority.CRITICAL));
-  }
-
-  protected ListenableFuture<Void> downloadFileAsync(
-      PathFragment path,
-      @Nullable ActionInput actionInput,
-      FileArtifactValue metadata,
-      Priority priority) {
-    return toListenableFuture(
-        Completable.using(
-            DirectoryContext::new,
-            dirCtx ->
-                downloadFileRx(
-                    dirCtx,
-                    execRoot.getFileSystem().getPath(path),
-                    /* treeRoot= */ null,
-                    actionInput,
-                    metadata,
-                    priority),
-            DirectoryContext::close));
-  }
-
   private void finalizeDownload(
       DirectoryContext dirCtx, @Nullable Path treeRoot, Path tmpPath, Path finalPath)
       throws IOException {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/BUILD b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/BUILD
index 3033522..3f28643 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/BUILD
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/BUILD
@@ -207,6 +207,7 @@
     deps = [
         ":abstract_action_input_prefetcher",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions:action_input_helper",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions:artifacts",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions:file_metadata",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis:analysis_cluster",
@@ -220,6 +221,7 @@
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe:tree_artifact_value",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/util",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs:pathfragment",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe:skyframe-objects",
         "//third_party:flogger",
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystem.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystem.java
index 2998356..e2c25cb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystem.java
@@ -20,12 +20,15 @@
 import static com.google.common.base.Preconditions.checkState;
 import static com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap.toImmutableMap;
 import static com.google.common.collect.Streams.stream;
+import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.Utils.getFromFuture;
 
 import com.google.common.annotations.VisibleForTesting;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputHelper;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputPrefetcher.Priority;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.SpecialArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
@@ -566,10 +569,6 @@
     return null;
   }
 
-  ActionInput getActionInput(PathFragment path) {
-    return getInput(path.relativeTo(execRoot).getPathString());
-  }
-
   @Nullable
   @Override
   public FileArtifactValue getMetadata(ActionInput input) throws IOException {
@@ -605,7 +604,7 @@
   }
 
   @Nullable
-  RemoteFileArtifactValue getRemoteMetadata(PathFragment path) {
+  private RemoteFileArtifactValue getRemoteMetadata(PathFragment path) {
     if (!isOutput(path)) {
       return null;
     }
@@ -631,15 +630,21 @@
   }
 
   private void downloadFileIfRemote(PathFragment path) throws IOException {
-    FileArtifactValue m = getRemoteMetadata(path);
-    if (m != null) {
-      try {
-        inputFetcher.downloadFile(delegateFs.getPath(path), getActionInput(path), m);
-      } catch (InterruptedException e) {
-        Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
-        throw new IOException(
-            String.format("Received interrupt while fetching file '%s'", path), e);
+    if (!isRemote(path)) {
+      return;
+    }
+    PathFragment execPath = path.relativeTo(execRoot);
+    try {
+      ActionInput input = getInput(execPath.getPathString());
+      if (input == null) {
+        // For undeclared outputs, getInput returns null as there's no artifact associated with the
+        // path. Therefore, we synthesize one here just so we're able to call prefetchFiles.
+        input = ActionInputHelper.fromPath(execPath);
       }
+      getFromFuture(inputFetcher.prefetchFiles(ImmutableList.of(input), this, Priority.CRITICAL));
+    } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+      Thread.currentThread().interrupt();
+      throw new IOException(String.format("Received interrupt while fetching file '%s'", path), e);
     }
   }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcher.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcher.java
index 28b4ccb..20bf04f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcher.java
@@ -21,25 +21,19 @@
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.ListenableFuture;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.EnvironmentalExecException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.cache.VirtualActionInput;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.events.ExtendedEventHandler.FetchProgress;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.events.Reporter;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.exec.SpawnProgressEvent;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.RemoteCache.DownloadProgressReporter;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.BulkTransferException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.RemoteActionExecutionContext;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.DigestUtil;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.TempPathGenerator;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.TracingMetadataUtils;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails.FailureDetail;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.server.FailureDetails.Spawn.Code;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputPermissions;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
-import io.reactivex.rxjava3.core.Completable;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.util.regex.Pattern;
 
@@ -54,7 +48,6 @@
   private final String buildRequestId;
   private final String commandId;
   private final RemoteCache remoteCache;
-  private final boolean useNewExitCodeForLostInputs;
 
   RemoteActionInputFetcher(
       Reporter reporter,
@@ -64,13 +57,11 @@
       Path execRoot,
       TempPathGenerator tempPathGenerator,
       ImmutableList<Pattern> patternsToDownload,
-      OutputPermissions outputPermissions,
-      boolean useNewExitCodeForLostInputs) {
+      OutputPermissions outputPermissions) {
     super(reporter, execRoot, tempPathGenerator, patternsToDownload, outputPermissions);
     this.buildRequestId = Preconditions.checkNotNull(buildRequestId);
     this.commandId = Preconditions.checkNotNull(commandId);
     this.remoteCache = Preconditions.checkNotNull(remoteCache);
-    this.useNewExitCodeForLostInputs = useNewExitCodeForLostInputs;
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -141,25 +132,4 @@
       return progress.finished();
     }
   }
-
-  @Override
-  protected Completable onErrorResumeNext(Throwable error) {
-    if (error instanceof BulkTransferException) {
-      if (((BulkTransferException) error).allCausedByCacheNotFoundException()) {
-        var code =
-            useNewExitCodeForLostInputs ? Code.REMOTE_CACHE_EVICTED : Code.REMOTE_CACHE_FAILED;
-        error =
-            new EnvironmentalExecException(
-                (BulkTransferException) error,
-                FailureDetail.newBuilder()
-                    .setMessage(
-                        "Failed to fetch blobs because they do not exist remotely."
-                            + " Build without the Bytes does not work if your remote"
-                            + " cache evicts blobs during builds")
-                    .setSpawn(FailureDetails.Spawn.newBuilder().setCode(code))
-                    .build());
-      }
-    }
-    return Completable.error(error);
-  }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteModule.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteModule.java
index babbf43..5bffa74 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteModule.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteModule.java
@@ -34,9 +34,7 @@
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.MoreExecutors;
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.ThreadFactoryBuilder;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionAnalysisMetadata;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.AnalysisResult;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.BlazeDirectories;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.ConfiguredTarget;
@@ -61,7 +59,6 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.exec.ModuleActionContextRegistry;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.exec.SpawnStrategyRegistry;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.RemoteServerCapabilities.ServerCapabilitiesRequirement;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.ToplevelArtifactsDownloader.PathToMetadataConverter;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.RemoteCacheClient;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.RemoteExecutionClient;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.downloader.GrpcRemoteDownloader;
@@ -965,8 +962,6 @@
 
     actionContextProvider.setTempPathGenerator(tempPathGenerator);
 
-    ExecutionOptions executionOptions =
-        Preconditions.checkNotNull(env.getOptions().getOptions(ExecutionOptions.class));
     RemoteOptions remoteOptions =
         Preconditions.checkNotNull(
             env.getOptions().getOptions(RemoteOptions.class), "RemoteOptions");
@@ -988,8 +983,7 @@
               env.getExecRoot(),
               tempPathGenerator,
               patternsToDownload,
-              outputPermissions,
-              executionOptions.useNewExitCodeForLostInputs);
+              outputPermissions);
       env.getEventBus().register(actionInputFetcher);
       builder.setActionInputPrefetcher(actionInputFetcher);
       actionContextProvider.setActionInputFetcher(actionInputFetcher);
@@ -1000,28 +994,13 @@
               remoteOutputsMode.downloadToplevelOutputsOnly(),
               env.getSkyframeExecutor().getEvaluator(),
               actionInputFetcher,
-              new PathToMetadataConverter() {
-                @Nullable
-                @Override
-                public FileArtifactValue getMetadata(Path path) {
-                  FileSystem fileSystem = path.getFileSystem();
-                  if (fileSystem instanceof RemoteActionFileSystem) {
-                    return ((RemoteActionFileSystem) path.getFileSystem())
-                        .getRemoteMetadata(path.asFragment());
-                  }
-                  return null;
+              env.getExecRoot().asFragment(),
+              (path) -> {
+                FileSystem fileSystem = path.getFileSystem();
+                if (fileSystem instanceof RemoteActionFileSystem) {
+                  return (RemoteActionFileSystem) path.getFileSystem();
                 }
-
-                @Nullable
-                @Override
-                public ActionInput getActionInput(Path path) {
-                  FileSystem fileSystem = path.getFileSystem();
-                  if (fileSystem instanceof RemoteActionFileSystem) {
-                    return ((RemoteActionFileSystem) path.getFileSystem())
-                        .getActionInput(path.asFragment());
-                  }
-                  return null;
-                }
+                return null;
               });
       env.getEventBus().register(toplevelArtifactsDownloader);
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ToplevelArtifactsDownloader.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ToplevelArtifactsDownloader.java
index e67a3ee..06ebe98 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ToplevelArtifactsDownloader.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ToplevelArtifactsDownloader.java
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
 import static com.google.common.util.concurrent.MoreExecutors.directExecutor;
 import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.packages.TargetUtils.isTestRuleName;
 
+import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
 import com.google.common.eventbus.AllowConcurrentEvents;
 import com.google.common.eventbus.Subscribe;
@@ -26,9 +27,11 @@
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.FutureCallback;
 import com.google.common.util.concurrent.ListenableFuture;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputHelper;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputPrefetcher.Priority;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataProvider;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.AspectCompleteEvent;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.ConfiguredTarget;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.ConfiguredTargetValue;
@@ -44,6 +47,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.TreeArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.Pair;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.MemoizingEvaluator;
 import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyValue;
 import javax.annotation.Nullable;
@@ -67,14 +71,16 @@
   private final boolean downloadToplevel;
   private final MemoizingEvaluator memoizingEvaluator;
   private final AbstractActionInputPrefetcher actionInputPrefetcher;
-  private final PathToMetadataConverter pathToMetadataConverter;
+  private final PathFragment execRoot;
+  private final PathToMetadataProvider pathToMetadataProvider;
 
   public ToplevelArtifactsDownloader(
       String commandName,
       boolean downloadToplevel,
       MemoizingEvaluator memoizingEvaluator,
       AbstractActionInputPrefetcher actionInputPrefetcher,
-      PathToMetadataConverter pathToMetadataConverter) {
+      PathFragment execRoot,
+      PathToMetadataProvider pathToMetadataProvider) {
     switch (commandName) {
       case "build":
         this.commandMode = CommandMode.BUILD;
@@ -94,38 +100,38 @@
     this.downloadToplevel = downloadToplevel;
     this.memoizingEvaluator = memoizingEvaluator;
     this.actionInputPrefetcher = actionInputPrefetcher;
-    this.pathToMetadataConverter = pathToMetadataConverter;
+    this.execRoot = execRoot;
+    this.pathToMetadataProvider = pathToMetadataProvider;
   }
 
   /**
-   * Interface that converts {@link Path} to metadata {@link FileArtifactValue}.
+   * Interface that converts a {@link Path} into a {@link MetadataProvider} suitable for retrieving
+   * metadata for that path.
    *
-   * <p>{@link ToplevelArtifactsDownloader} is only used with {@code ActionFileSystem} together. If
-   * we see a {@link Path}, its underlying file system must be {@code ActionFileSystem}. We use this
-   * interface to avoid passing in the actionFs implementation.
+   * <p>{@link ToplevelArtifactsDownloader} may only used in conjunction with filesystems that
+   * implement {@link MetadataProvider}.
    */
-  public interface PathToMetadataConverter {
+  public interface PathToMetadataProvider {
     @Nullable
-    FileArtifactValue getMetadata(Path path);
-
-    @Nullable
-    ActionInput getActionInput(Path path);
+    MetadataProvider getMetadataProvider(Path path);
   }
 
   private void downloadTestOutput(Path path) {
     // Since the event is fired within action execution, the skyframe doesn't know the outputs of
-    // test actions yet, so we can't get their metadata through skyframe. However, the fileSystem
-    // of the path is an ActionFileSystem, we use it to get the metadata for this file.
+    // test actions yet, so we can't get their metadata through skyframe. However, since the path
+    // belongs to a filesystem that implements MetadataProvider, we use it to get the metadata.
     //
     // If the test hit action cache, the filesystem is local filesystem because the actual test
-    // action didn't get the chance to execute. In this case the metadata is null which is fine
-    // because test outputs are already downloaded (otherwise it cannot hit the action cache).
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = pathToMetadataConverter.getMetadata(path);
-    ActionInput actionInput = pathToMetadataConverter.getActionInput(path);
-    if (metadata != null) {
+    // action didn't get the chance to execute. In this case the MetadataProvider is null, which
+    // is fine because test outputs are already downloaded (otherwise the action cache wouldn't
+    // have been hit).
+    MetadataProvider metadataProvider = pathToMetadataProvider.getMetadataProvider(path);
+    if (metadataProvider != null) {
+      // RemoteActionFileSystem#getInput returns null for undeclared test outputs.
+      ActionInput input = ActionInputHelper.fromPath(path.asFragment().relativeTo(execRoot));
       ListenableFuture<Void> future =
-          actionInputPrefetcher.downloadFileAsync(
-              path.asFragment(), actionInput, metadata, Priority.LOW);
+          actionInputPrefetcher.prefetchFiles(
+              ImmutableList.of(input), metadataProvider, Priority.LOW);
       addCallback(
           future,
           new FutureCallback<Void>() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ActionInputPrefetcherTestBase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ActionInputPrefetcherTestBase.java
index 32ae32c..d76c3ce 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ActionInputPrefetcherTestBase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/ActionInputPrefetcherTestBase.java
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 import static com.google.common.truth.Truth.assertThat;
 import static com.google.common.truth.Truth.assertWithMessage;
 import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.util.ActionsTestUtil.createTreeArtifactWithGeneratingAction;
+import static com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.Utils.getFromFuture;
 import static java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8;
 import static org.junit.Assert.assertThrows;
 import static org.mockito.ArgumentMatchers.any;
@@ -570,22 +571,7 @@
   }
 
   @Test
-  public void downloadFile_downloadRemoteFiles() throws Exception {
-    Map<ActionInput, FileArtifactValue> metadata = new HashMap<>();
-    Map<HashCode, byte[]> cas = new HashMap<>();
-    Artifact a1 = createRemoteArtifact("file1", "hello world", metadata, cas);
-    AbstractActionInputPrefetcher prefetcher = createPrefetcher(cas);
-
-    prefetcher.downloadFile(a1.getPath(), /* actionInput= */ null, metadata.get(a1));
-
-    assertThat(FileSystemUtils.readContent(a1.getPath(), UTF_8)).isEqualTo("hello world");
-    assertThat(a1.getPath().isExecutable()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(a1.getPath().isReadable()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(a1.getPath().isWritable()).isFalse();
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void downloadFile_onInterrupt_deletePartialDownloadedFile() throws Exception {
+  public void prefetchFiles_onInterrupt_deletePartialDownloadedFile() throws Exception {
     Semaphore startSemaphore = new Semaphore(0);
     Semaphore endSemaphore = new Semaphore(0);
     Map<ActionInput, FileArtifactValue> metadata = new HashMap<>();
@@ -605,7 +591,11 @@
         new Thread(
             () -> {
               try {
-                prefetcher.downloadFile(a1.getPath(), /* actionInput= */ null, metadata.get(a1));
+                getFromFuture(
+                    prefetcher.prefetchFiles(
+                        ImmutableList.of(a1),
+                        new StaticMetadataProvider(metadata),
+                        Priority.MEDIUM));
               } catch (IOException ignored) {
                 // Intentionally left empty
               } catch (InterruptedException e) {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystemTest.java
index 8037c55..c8de525 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionFileSystemTest.java
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 import static com.google.common.base.Preconditions.checkNotNull;
 import static com.google.common.truth.Truth.assertThat;
 import static com.google.common.truth.Truth8.assertThat;
+import static com.google.common.util.concurrent.Futures.immediateVoidFuture;
 import static java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8;
 import static org.mockito.ArgumentMatchers.any;
 import static org.mockito.ArgumentMatchers.eq;
@@ -28,7 +29,11 @@
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
 import com.google.common.hash.HashCode;
+import com.google.common.util.concurrent.ListenableFuture;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputHelper;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputPrefetcher.Priority;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.SpecialArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
@@ -50,6 +55,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Symlinks;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.SyscallCache;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.inmemoryfs.InMemoryFileSystem;
+import com.google.errorprone.annotations.CanIgnoreReturnValue;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.util.Map;
 import org.junit.Before;
@@ -113,10 +119,10 @@
     return outputRoot.getRoot().asPath().getRelative(outputRootRelativePath).asFragment();
   }
 
-  private static Answer<Void> mockDownloadFile(Path path, String contents) {
+  private static Answer<ListenableFuture<Void>> mockPrefetchFile(Path path, String contents) {
     return invocationOnMock -> {
       FileSystemUtils.writeContent(path, UTF_8, contents);
-      return null;
+      return immediateVoidFuture();
     };
   }
 
@@ -142,9 +148,9 @@
     ActionInputMap inputs = new ActionInputMap(1);
     Artifact artifact = createRemoteArtifact("remote-file", "remote contents", inputs);
     FileSystem actionFs = createActionFileSystem(inputs);
-    doAnswer(mockDownloadFile(artifact.getPath(), "remote contents"))
+    doAnswer(mockPrefetchFile(artifact.getPath(), "remote contents"))
         .when(inputFetcher)
-        .downloadFile(eq(artifact.getPath()), any(), eq(inputs.getMetadata(artifact)));
+        .prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(artifact)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
 
     // act
     Path actionFsPath = actionFs.getPath(artifact.getPath().asFragment());
@@ -154,7 +160,7 @@
     assertThat(actionFsPath.getFileSystem()).isSameInstanceAs(actionFs);
     assertThat(contents).isEqualTo("remote contents");
     verify(inputFetcher)
-        .downloadFile(eq(artifact.getPath()), any(), eq(inputs.getMetadata(artifact)));
+        .prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(artifact)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
     verifyNoMoreInteractions(inputFetcher);
   }
 
@@ -163,11 +169,10 @@
     // arrange
     Artifact artifact = ActionsTestUtil.createArtifact(outputRoot, "out");
     FileSystem actionFs = createActionFileSystem(new ActionInputMap(0), ImmutableList.of(artifact));
-    FileArtifactValue metadata =
-        injectRemoteFile(actionFs, artifact.getPath().asFragment(), "remote contents");
-    doAnswer(mockDownloadFile(artifact.getPath(), "remote contents"))
+    injectRemoteFile(actionFs, artifact.getPath().asFragment(), "remote contents");
+    doAnswer(mockPrefetchFile(artifact.getPath(), "remote contents"))
         .when(inputFetcher)
-        .downloadFile(eq(artifact.getPath()), any(), eq(metadata));
+        .prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(artifact)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
 
     // act
     Path actionFsPath = actionFs.getPath(artifact.getPath().asFragment());
@@ -176,7 +181,8 @@
     // assert
     assertThat(actionFsPath.getFileSystem()).isSameInstanceAs(actionFs);
     assertThat(contents).isEqualTo("remote contents");
-    verify(inputFetcher).downloadFile(eq(artifact.getPath()), any(), eq(metadata));
+    verify(inputFetcher)
+        .prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(artifact)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
     verifyNoMoreInteractions(inputFetcher);
   }
 
@@ -184,11 +190,12 @@
   public void testGetInputStream_fromRemoteOutputTree_forUndeclaredOutput() throws Exception {
     // arrange
     Path path = outputRoot.getRoot().getRelative("out");
+    ActionInput input = ActionInputHelper.fromPath(path.relativeTo(execRoot));
     FileSystem actionFs = createActionFileSystem();
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = injectRemoteFile(actionFs, path.asFragment(), "remote contents");
-    doAnswer(mockDownloadFile(path, "remote contents"))
+    injectRemoteFile(actionFs, path.asFragment(), "remote contents");
+    doAnswer(mockPrefetchFile(path, "remote contents"))
         .when(inputFetcher)
-        .downloadFile(eq(path), any(), eq(metadata));
+        .prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(input)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
 
     // act
     Path actionFsPath = actionFs.getPath(path.asFragment());
@@ -197,7 +204,7 @@
     // assert
     assertThat(actionFsPath.getFileSystem()).isSameInstanceAs(actionFs);
     assertThat(contents).isEqualTo("remote contents");
-    verify(inputFetcher).downloadFile(eq(path), any(), eq(metadata));
+    verify(inputFetcher).prefetchFiles(eq(ImmutableList.of(input)), any(), eq(Priority.CRITICAL));
     verifyNoMoreInteractions(inputFetcher);
   }
 
@@ -564,6 +571,7 @@
   }
 
   @Override
+  @CanIgnoreReturnValue
   protected FileArtifactValue injectRemoteFile(
       FileSystem actionFs, PathFragment path, String content) throws IOException {
     byte[] contentBytes = content.getBytes(UTF_8);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcherTest.java
index 36bbf24..b4d7f51 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcherTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/remote/RemoteActionInputFetcherTest.java
@@ -25,12 +25,12 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputPrefetcher.Priority;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ExecException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataProvider;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.cache.VirtualActionInput;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.util.ActionsTestUtil;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.events.Reporter;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.common.BulkTransferException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.options.RemoteOptions;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.DigestUtil;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.remote.util.InMemoryCacheClient;
@@ -76,8 +76,7 @@
         execRoot,
         tempPathGenerator,
         ImmutableList.of(),
-        OutputPermissions.READONLY,
-        /* useNewExitCodeForLostInputs= */ false);
+        OutputPermissions.READONLY);
   }
 
   @Test
@@ -94,8 +93,7 @@
             execRoot,
             tempPathGenerator,
             ImmutableList.of(),
-            OutputPermissions.READONLY,
-            /* useNewExitCodeForLostInputs= */ false);
+            OutputPermissions.READONLY);
     VirtualActionInput a = ActionsTestUtil.createVirtualActionInput("file1", "hello world");
 
     // act
@@ -123,8 +121,7 @@
             execRoot,
             tempPathGenerator,
             ImmutableList.of(),
-            OutputPermissions.READONLY,
-            /* useNewExitCodeForLostInputs= */ false);
+            OutputPermissions.READONLY);
 
     // act
     wait(
@@ -145,7 +142,7 @@
 
     var error =
         assertThrows(
-            ExecException.class,
+            BulkTransferException.class,
             () ->
                 wait(
                     prefetcher.prefetchFiles(