diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContext.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContext.java
index c67645d..5f1e051 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContext.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContext.java
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
 import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction;
 import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction.Environment;
 import com.google.devtools.common.options.OptionsClassProvider;
@@ -51,9 +52,10 @@
   private final ImmutableMap<String, String> clientEnv;
   private final ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>>
       inputFilesetMappings;
-  private final ArtifactExpander artifactExpander;
-  @Nullable
-  private final Environment env;
+  @Nullable private final ArtifactExpander artifactExpander;
+  @Nullable private final Environment env;
+
+  @Nullable private final FileSystem actionFileSystem;
 
   @Nullable private ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink> outputSymlinks;
 
@@ -67,7 +69,8 @@
       Map<String, String> clientEnv,
       ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings,
       @Nullable ArtifactExpander artifactExpander,
-      @Nullable SkyFunction.Environment env) {
+      @Nullable SkyFunction.Environment env,
+      @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
     this.actionInputFileCache = actionInputFileCache;
     this.actionInputPrefetcher = actionInputPrefetcher;
     this.actionKeyContext = actionKeyContext;
@@ -78,6 +81,7 @@
     this.executor = executor;
     this.artifactExpander = artifactExpander;
     this.env = env;
+    this.actionFileSystem = actionFileSystem;
   }
 
   public ActionExecutionContext(
@@ -89,7 +93,8 @@
       FileOutErr fileOutErr,
       Map<String, String> clientEnv,
       ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings,
-      ArtifactExpander artifactExpander) {
+      ArtifactExpander artifactExpander,
+      @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
     this(
         executor,
         actionInputFileCache,
@@ -100,7 +105,8 @@
         clientEnv,
         inputFilesetMappings,
         artifactExpander,
-        null);
+        /*env=*/ null,
+        actionFileSystem);
   }
 
   public static ActionExecutionContext forInputDiscovery(
@@ -111,7 +117,8 @@
       MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
       FileOutErr fileOutErr,
       Map<String, String> clientEnv,
-      Environment env) {
+      Environment env,
+      @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
     return new ActionExecutionContext(
         executor,
         actionInputFileCache,
@@ -121,8 +128,9 @@
         fileOutErr,
         clientEnv,
         ImmutableMap.of(),
-        null,
-        env);
+        /*artifactExpander=*/ null,
+        env,
+        actionFileSystem);
   }
 
   public ActionInputPrefetcher getActionInputPrefetcher() {
@@ -151,16 +159,28 @@
    * <p>Notably, in the future, we want any action-scoped artifacts to resolve paths using this
    * method instead of {@link Artifact#getPath} because that does not allow filesystem injection.
    *
-   * <p>TODO(shahan): cleanup {@link Action}-scoped references to {@link Artifact.getPath}.
+   * <p>TODO(shahan): cleanup {@link Action}-scoped references to {@link Artifact.getPath} and
+   * {@link Artifact.getRoot}.
    */
   public Path getInputPath(ActionInput input) {
     if (input instanceof Artifact) {
-      // TODO(shahan): replace this with actual logic once we understand what it is.
-      return ((Artifact) input).getPath();
+      Artifact artifact = (Artifact) input;
+      if (actionFileSystem != null) {
+        return actionFileSystem.getPath(artifact.getPath().getPathString());
+      }
+      return artifact.getPath();
     }
     return executor.getExecRoot().getRelative(input.getExecPath());
   }
 
+  public Root getRoot(Artifact artifact) {
+    if (actionFileSystem != null) {
+      return Root.fromPath(
+          actionFileSystem.getPath(artifact.getRoot().getRoot().asPath().getPathString()));
+    }
+    return artifact.getRoot().getRoot();
+  }
+
   /**
    * Returns whether failures should have verbose error messages.
    */
@@ -290,6 +310,7 @@
         clientEnv,
         inputFilesetMappings,
         artifactExpander,
-        env);
+        env,
+        actionFileSystem);
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContextFactory.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContextFactory.java
deleted file mode 100644
index c3bcb09..0000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ActionExecutionContextFactory.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,38 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2014 The Bazel Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-//
-//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions;
-
-import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
-import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.cache.MetadataHandler;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
-import java.util.Collection;
-import java.util.Map;
-
-/**
- * Interface that provides an {@link ActionExecutionContext} on demand. Used to limit the surface
- * area available to callers that need to execute an action but do not need the full framework
- * normally provided.
- */
-public interface ActionExecutionContextFactory {
-  /**
-   * Returns an action execution context. This involves creating a new FileOutErr, and it is the
-   * caller's responsibility to close that, e.g. by calling {@link ActionExecutionContext#close}.
-   */
-  ActionExecutionContext getContext(
-      ActionInputFileCache graphFileCache,
-      MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
-      Map<Artifact, Collection<Artifact>> expandedInputs,
-      ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings);
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppCompileAction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppCompileAction.java
index 3cd4a4b..8b43ac1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppCompileAction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CppCompileAction.java
@@ -971,7 +971,7 @@
       }
     }
     // Still not found: see if it is in a subdir of a declared package.
-    Root root = input.getRoot().getRoot();
+    Root root = actionExecutionContext.getRoot(input);
     for (Path dir = actionExecutionContext.getInputPath(input).getParentDirectory(); ; ) {
       if (dir.getRelative(BUILD_PATH_FRAGMENT).exists()) {
         return false;  // Bad: this is a sub-package, not a subdir of a declared package.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
index aca1c5c..283f0d9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
@@ -189,6 +189,17 @@
       Preconditions.checkState(!state.hasArtifactData(), "%s %s", state, action);
       state.inputArtifactData = checkedInputs.first;
       state.expandedArtifacts = checkedInputs.second;
+      if (skyframeActionExecutor.usesActionFileSystem()) {
+        state.actionFileSystem =
+            new ActionFileSystem(
+                checkedInputs.first,
+                // TODO(shahan): based on experimentation, it suffices to include only {@link
+                // com.google.devtools.build.lib.rules.cpp.IncludeScannable#getDeclaredIncludeSrcs}.
+                // That may be a smaller set and more efficient but makes this class have an
+                // awkward dependency on something in the cpp package.
+                action.discoversInputs() ? action.getAllowedDerivedInputs() : ImmutableList.of(),
+                action.getOutputs());
+      }
     }
 
     ActionExecutionValue result;
@@ -391,14 +402,18 @@
     metadataHandler.discardOutputMetadata();
 
     // This may be recreated if we discover inputs.
+    // TODO(shahan): this isn't used when using ActionFileSystem so we can avoid creating some
+    // unused objects.
     PerActionFileCache perActionFileCache =
         new PerActionFileCache(
             state.inputArtifactData, /*missingArtifactsAllowed=*/ action.discoversInputs());
     if (action.discoversInputs()) {
       if (state.discoveredInputs == null) {
         try {
-          state.discoveredInputs = skyframeActionExecutor.discoverInputs(action,
-              perActionFileCache, metadataHandler, env);
+          state.updateFileSystemContext(env, metadataHandler);
+          state.discoveredInputs =
+              skyframeActionExecutor.discoverInputs(
+                  action, perActionFileCache, metadataHandler, env, state.actionFileSystem);
           Preconditions.checkState(state.discoveredInputs != null,
               "discoverInputs() returned null on action %s", action);
         } catch (MissingDepException e) {
@@ -413,6 +428,7 @@
       }
       perActionFileCache =
           new PerActionFileCache(state.inputArtifactData, /*missingArtifactsAllowed=*/ false);
+      state.updateFileSystemInputData();
 
       // Stage 1 finished, let's do stage 2. The stage 1 of input discovery will have added some
       // files with addDiscoveredInputs() and then have waited for those files to be available
@@ -430,6 +446,7 @@
         }
         perActionFileCache =
             new PerActionFileCache(state.inputArtifactData, /*missingArtifactsAllowed=*/ false);
+        state.updateFileSystemInputData();
       }
       metadataHandler =
           new ActionMetadataHandler(state.inputArtifactData, action.getOutputs(), tsgm.get());
@@ -460,12 +477,14 @@
       filesetMappings.put(actionInput.getExecPath(), filesetValue.getOutputSymlinks());
     }
 
+    state.updateFileSystemContext(env, metadataHandler);
     try (ActionExecutionContext actionExecutionContext =
         skyframeActionExecutor.getContext(
             perActionFileCache,
             metadataHandler,
             Collections.unmodifiableMap(state.expandedArtifacts),
-            filesetMappings.build())) {
+            filesetMappings.build(),
+            state.actionFileSystem)) {
       if (!state.hasExecutedAction()) {
         state.value =
             skyframeActionExecutor.executeAction(
@@ -772,6 +791,7 @@
     Iterable<Artifact> discoveredInputs = null;
     Iterable<Artifact> discoveredInputsStage2 = null;
     ActionExecutionValue value = null;
+    ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem = null;
 
     boolean hasCollectedInputs() {
       return allInputs != null;
@@ -793,6 +813,21 @@
       return value != null;
     }
 
+    /** Must be called to assign values to the given variables as they change. */
+    void updateFileSystemContext(
+        SkyFunction.Environment env, ActionMetadataHandler metadataHandler) {
+      if (actionFileSystem != null) {
+        actionFileSystem.updateContext(env, metadataHandler::injectOutputData);
+      }
+    }
+
+    /** Propagates {@link inputArtifactData} changes due to input discovery. */
+    void updateFileSystemInputData() {
+      if (actionFileSystem != null) {
+        actionFileSystem.updateInputData(inputArtifactData);
+      }
+    }
+
     @Override
     public String toString() {
       return token + ", " + value + ", " + allInputs + ", " + inputArtifactData + ", "
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62e9761
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java
@@ -0,0 +1,658 @@
+// Copyright 2018 The Bazel Authors. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
+
+import static java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.US_ASCII;
+
+import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
+import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
+import com.google.common.collect.Streams;
+import com.google.common.io.BaseEncoding;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputFileCache;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileStateType;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.AbstractFileSystem;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
+import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction;
+import com.google.protobuf.ByteString;
+import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
+import java.io.IOException;
+import java.io.InputStream;
+import java.io.InterruptedIOException;
+import java.io.OutputStream;
+import java.util.Collection;
+import java.util.HashMap;
+import java.util.LinkedHashSet;
+import java.util.Map;
+import java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentHashMap;
+import java.util.function.Function;
+import java.util.function.Supplier;
+import java.util.logging.Logger;
+import javax.annotation.Nullable;
+
+/**
+ * File system for actions.
+ *
+ * <p>This class is thread-safe except that
+ *
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>{@link updateContext} and {@link updateInputData} must be called exclusively of any other
+ *       methods.
+ *   <li>This class relies on synchronized access to {@link env}. If there are other threads, that
+ *       access {@link env}, they must also used synchronized access.
+ * </ul>
+ */
+final class ActionFileSystem extends AbstractFileSystem implements ActionInputFileCache {
+  private static final Logger LOGGER = Logger.getLogger(ActionFileSystem.class.getName());
+
+  /**
+   * Exec root and source roots.
+   *
+   * <p>First entry is exec root. Used to convert paths into exec paths.
+   */
+  private final LinkedHashSet<PathFragment> roots = new LinkedHashSet<>();
+
+  /** exec path → artifact and metadata */
+  private final Map<PathFragment, ArtifactAndMetadata> inputs;
+
+  /** exec path → artifact and metadata */
+  private final ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ArtifactAndMutableMetadata> outputs;
+
+  /** digest → artifacts in {@link inputs} */
+  private final ConcurrentHashMap<ByteString, Artifact> reverseMap;
+
+  /** Used to lookup metadata for optional inputs. */
+  private SkyFunction.Environment env = null;
+
+  /**
+   * Called whenever there is new metadata for an output.
+   *
+   * <p>This is backed by injection into an {@link ActionMetadataHandler} instance so should only be
+   * called once per artifact.
+   */
+  private MetadataConsumer metadataConsumer = null;
+
+  ActionFileSystem(
+      Map<Artifact, FileArtifactValue> inputData,
+      Iterable<Artifact> allowedInputs,
+      Iterable<Artifact> outputArtifacts) {
+    roots.add(computeExecRoot(outputArtifacts));
+
+    // TODO(shahan): Underestimates because this doesn't account for discovered inputs. Improve
+    // this estimate using data.
+    this.reverseMap = new ConcurrentHashMap<>(inputData.size());
+
+    HashMap<PathFragment, ArtifactAndMetadata> inputs = new HashMap<>();
+    for (Map.Entry<Artifact, FileArtifactValue> entry : inputData.entrySet()) {
+      Artifact input = entry.getKey();
+      updateRootsIfSource(input);
+      inputs.put(input.getExecPath(), new SimpleArtifactAndMetadata(input, entry.getValue()));
+      updateReverseMapIfDigestExists(entry.getValue(), entry.getKey());
+    }
+    for (Artifact input : allowedInputs) {
+      PathFragment execPath = input.getExecPath();
+      inputs.computeIfAbsent(execPath, unused -> new OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata(input));
+      updateRootsIfSource(input);
+    }
+    this.inputs = inputs;
+
+    validateRoots();
+
+    this.outputs =
+        Streams.stream(outputArtifacts)
+            .collect(
+                ImmutableMap.toImmutableMap(
+                    a -> a.getExecPath(), a -> new ArtifactAndMutableMetadata(a)));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Must be called prior to access and updated as needed.
+   *
+   * <p>These cannot be passed into the constructor because while {@link ActionFileSystem} is
+   * action-scoped, the environment and metadata consumer change multiple times, at well defined
+   * points, during the lifetime of an action.
+   */
+  public void updateContext(SkyFunction.Environment env, MetadataConsumer metadataConsumer) {
+    this.env = env;
+    this.metadataConsumer = metadataConsumer;
+  }
+
+  /** Input discovery changes the values of the input data map so it must be updated accordingly. */
+  public void updateInputData(Map<Artifact, FileArtifactValue> inputData) {
+    boolean foundNewRoots = false;
+    for (Map.Entry<Artifact, FileArtifactValue> entry : inputData.entrySet()) {
+      ArtifactAndMetadata current = inputs.get(entry.getKey().getExecPath());
+      if (current == null || isUnsetOptional(current)) {
+        Artifact input = entry.getKey();
+        inputs.put(input.getExecPath(), new SimpleArtifactAndMetadata(input, entry.getValue()));
+        foundNewRoots = updateRootsIfSource(entry.getKey()) || foundNewRoots;
+        updateReverseMapIfDigestExists(entry.getValue(), entry.getKey());
+      }
+    }
+    if (foundNewRoots) {
+      validateRoots();
+    }
+  }
+
+  // -------------------- ActionInputFileCache implementation --------------------
+
+  @Override
+  @Nullable
+  public FileArtifactValue getMetadata(ActionInput actionInput) {
+    return apply(
+        actionInput.getExecPath(),
+        input -> {
+          try {
+            return input.getMetadata();
+          } catch (IOException e) {
+            // TODO(shahan): improve the handling of this error by propagating it correctly
+            // through MetadataHandler.getMetadata().
+            throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+          }
+        },
+        output -> output.getMetadata(),
+        () -> null);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean contentsAvailableLocally(ByteString digest) {
+    // TODO(shahan): we assume this is never true, though the digests might be present. Should
+    // this be relaxed for locally available source files?
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  @Nullable
+  public Artifact getInputFromDigest(ByteString digest) {
+    return reverseMap.get(digest);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public Path getInputPath(ActionInput actionInput) {
+    ArtifactAndMetadata input = inputs.get(actionInput.getExecPath());
+    if (input != null) {
+      return getPath(input.getArtifact().getPath().getPathString());
+    }
+    ArtifactAndMutableMetadata output = outputs.get(actionInput.getExecPath());
+    if (output != null) {
+      return getPath(output.getArtifact().getPath().getPathString());
+    }
+    // TODO(shahan): this might need to be relaxed
+    throw new IllegalStateException(actionInput + " not found");
+  }
+
+  // -------------------- FileSystem implementation --------------------
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean supportsModifications(Path path) {
+    return isOutput(path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean supportsSymbolicLinksNatively(Path path) {
+    return isOutput(path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean supportsHardLinksNatively(Path path) {
+    return isOutput(path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean isFilePathCaseSensitive() {
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  /** ActionFileSystem currently doesn't track directories. */
+  @Override
+  public boolean createDirectory(Path path) throws IOException {
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void createDirectoryAndParents(Path path) throws IOException {}
+
+  @Override
+  protected long getFileSize(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    return getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path).getSize();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public boolean delete(Path path) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected long getLastModifiedTime(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    return getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path).getModifiedTime();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void setLastModifiedTime(Path path, long newTime) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected byte[] getFastDigest(Path path, HashFunction hash) throws IOException {
+    if (hash != HashFunction.MD5) {
+      return null;
+    }
+    return getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path).getDigest();
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isSymbolicLink(Path path) {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isDirectory(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataUnchecked(path);
+    return metadata == null ? false : metadata.getType() == FileStateType.DIRECTORY;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isFile(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataUnchecked(path);
+    return metadata == null ? false : metadata.getType() == FileStateType.REGULAR_FILE;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isSpecialFile(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataUnchecked(path);
+    return metadata == null ? false : metadata.getType() == FileStateType.SPECIAL_FILE;
+  }
+
+  private static String createSymbolicLinkErrorMessage(
+      Path linkPath, PathFragment targetFragment, String message) {
+    return "createSymbolicLink(" + linkPath + ", " + targetFragment + "): " + message;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void createSymbolicLink(Path linkPath, PathFragment targetFragment) throws IOException {
+    ArtifactAndMetadata input = inputs.get(asExecPath(targetFragment));
+    if (input == null) {
+      throw new FileNotFoundException(
+          createSymbolicLinkErrorMessage(
+              linkPath, targetFragment, targetFragment + " is not an input."));
+    }
+    ArtifactAndMutableMetadata output = outputs.get(asExecPath(linkPath));
+    if (output == null) {
+      throw new FileNotFoundException(
+          createSymbolicLinkErrorMessage(
+              linkPath, targetFragment, linkPath + " is not an output."));
+    }
+    output.setMetadata(input.getMetadata());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected PathFragment readSymbolicLink(Path path) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean exists(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) {
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(
+        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
+    return apply(path, input -> true, output -> output.getMetadata() != null, () -> false);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected Collection<String> getDirectoryEntries(Path path) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isReadable(Path path) throws IOException {
+    return exists(path, true);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void setReadable(Path path, boolean readable) throws IOException {}
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isWritable(Path path) throws IOException {
+    return isOutput(path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void setWritable(Path path, boolean writable) throws IOException {}
+
+  @Override
+  protected boolean isExecutable(Path path) throws IOException {
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void setExecutable(Path path, boolean executable) throws IOException {}
+
+  @Override
+  protected InputStream getInputStream(Path path) throws IOException {
+    // TODO(shahan): cleanup callers of this method and disable or maybe figure out a reasonable
+    // implementation.
+    LOGGER.severe("Raw read of path: " + path);
+    return super.getInputStream(path);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected OutputStream getOutputStream(Path path, boolean append) throws IOException {
+    // TODO(shahan): cleanup callers of this method and disable or maybe figure out a reasonable
+    // implementation.
+    LOGGER.severe("Raw write of path: " + path);
+    return super.getOutputStream(path, append);
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  public void renameTo(Path sourcePath, Path targetPath) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException("renameTo(" + sourcePath + ", " + targetPath + ")");
+  }
+
+  @Override
+  protected void createFSDependentHardLink(Path linkPath, Path originalPath) throws IOException {
+    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(
+        "createFSDependendHardLink(" + linkPath + ", " + originalPath + ")");
+  }
+
+  // -------------------- Implementation Helpers --------------------
+
+  private PathFragment asExecPath(Path path) {
+    return asExecPath(path.asFragment());
+  }
+
+  private PathFragment asExecPath(PathFragment fragment) {
+    for (PathFragment root : roots) {
+      if (fragment.startsWith(root)) {
+        return fragment.relativeTo(root);
+      }
+    }
+    throw new IllegalArgumentException(fragment + " was not found under any known root: " + roots);
+  }
+
+  private boolean isOutput(Path path) {
+    return outputs.containsKey(asExecPath(path));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Lambda-based case implementation.
+   *
+   * <p>One of {@code inputOp} or {@code outputOp} will be called depending on whether {@code path}
+   * is an input or output.
+   */
+  private <T> T apply(Path path, InputFileOperator<T> inputOp, OutputFileOperator<T> outputOp)
+      throws IOException {
+    PathFragment execPath = asExecPath(path);
+    ArtifactAndMetadata input = inputs.get(execPath);
+    if (input != null) {
+      return inputOp.apply(input);
+    }
+    ArtifactAndMutableMetadata output = outputs.get(execPath);
+    if (output != null) {
+      return outputOp.apply(output);
+    }
+    throw new FileNotFoundException(path.getPathString());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Apply variant that doesn't throw exceptions.
+   *
+   * <p>Useful for implementing existence-type methods.
+   */
+  private <T> T apply(
+      Path path,
+      Function<ArtifactAndMetadata, T> inputOp,
+      Function<ArtifactAndMutableMetadata, T> outputOp,
+      Supplier<T> notFoundOp) {
+    return apply(asExecPath(path), inputOp, outputOp, notFoundOp);
+  }
+
+  private <T> T apply(
+      PathFragment execPath,
+      Function<ArtifactAndMetadata, T> inputOp,
+      Function<ArtifactAndMutableMetadata, T> outputOp,
+      Supplier<T> notFoundOp) {
+    ArtifactAndMetadata input = inputs.get(execPath);
+    if (input != null) {
+      return inputOp.apply(input);
+    }
+    ArtifactAndMutableMetadata output = outputs.get(execPath);
+    if (output != null) {
+      return outputOp.apply(output);
+    }
+    return notFoundOp.get();
+  }
+
+  private boolean updateRootsIfSource(Artifact input) {
+    if (input.isSourceArtifact()) {
+      return roots.add(input.getRoot().getRoot().asPath().asFragment());
+    }
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * The execution root is globally unique for a build so can be derived from any output.
+   *
+   * <p>Outputs must be nonempty.
+   */
+  private static PathFragment computeExecRoot(Iterable<Artifact> outputs) {
+    Artifact derived = outputs.iterator().next();
+    Preconditions.checkArgument(!derived.isSourceArtifact(), derived);
+    PathFragment rootFragment = derived.getRoot().getRoot().asPath().asFragment();
+    int rootSegments = rootFragment.segmentCount();
+    int execSegments = derived.getRoot().getExecPath().segmentCount();
+    return rootFragment.subFragment(0, rootSegments - execSegments);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Verifies that no root is the prefix of any other root.
+   *
+   * <p>TODO(shahan): if this is insufficiently general, we can topologically order on the prefix
+   * relation between roots.
+   */
+  private void validateRoots() {
+    for (PathFragment root1 : roots) {
+      for (PathFragment root2 : roots) {
+        if (root1 == root2) {
+          continue;
+        }
+        Preconditions.checkState(!root1.startsWith(root2), "%s starts with %s", root1, root2);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static ByteString toByteString(byte[] digest) {
+    return ByteString.copyFrom(BaseEncoding.base16().lowerCase().encode(digest).getBytes(US_ASCII));
+  }
+
+  private static boolean isUnsetOptional(ArtifactAndMetadata input) {
+    if (input instanceof OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata) {
+      OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata optional = (OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata) input;
+      return !optional.hasMetadata();
+    }
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  private void updateReverseMapIfDigestExists(FileArtifactValue metadata, Artifact artifact) {
+    if (metadata.getDigest() != null) {
+      reverseMap.put(toByteString(metadata.getDigest()), artifact);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private FileArtifactValue getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(Path path) throws IOException {
+    return apply(
+        path,
+        input -> input.getMetadata(),
+        output -> {
+          if (output.getMetadata() == null) {
+            throw new FileNotFoundException(path.getPathString());
+          }
+          return output.getMetadata();
+        });
+  }
+
+  @Nullable
+  private FileArtifactValue getMetadataUnchecked(Path path) {
+    return apply(
+        path,
+        input -> {
+          try {
+            return input.getMetadata();
+          } catch (IOException e) {
+            // TODO(shahan): propagate this error correctly through higher level APIs.
+            throw new IllegalStateException(e);
+          }
+        },
+        output -> output.getMetadata(),
+        () -> null);
+  }
+
+  @FunctionalInterface
+  private static interface InputFileOperator<T> {
+    T apply(ArtifactAndMetadata entry) throws IOException;
+  }
+
+  @FunctionalInterface
+  private static interface OutputFileOperator<T> {
+    T apply(ArtifactAndMutableMetadata entry) throws IOException;
+  }
+
+  @FunctionalInterface
+  public static interface MetadataConsumer {
+    void accept(Artifact artifact, FileArtifactValue value) throws IOException;
+  }
+
+  private abstract static class ArtifactAndMetadata {
+    public abstract Artifact getArtifact();
+
+    public abstract FileArtifactValue getMetadata() throws IOException;
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+      String metadataText = null;
+      try {
+        metadataText = "" + getMetadata();
+      } catch (IOException e) {
+        metadataText = "Error getting metadata(" + e.getMessage() + ")";
+      }
+      return getArtifact() + ": " + metadataText;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private static class SimpleArtifactAndMetadata extends ArtifactAndMetadata {
+    private final Artifact artifact;
+    private final FileArtifactValue metadata;
+
+    private SimpleArtifactAndMetadata(Artifact artifact, FileArtifactValue metadata) {
+      this.artifact = artifact;
+      this.metadata = metadata;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public Artifact getArtifact() {
+      return artifact;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FileArtifactValue getMetadata() {
+      return metadata;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private class OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata extends ArtifactAndMetadata {
+    private final Artifact artifact;
+    private volatile FileArtifactValue metadata = null;
+
+    private OptionalInputArtifactAndMetadata(Artifact artifact) {
+      this.artifact = artifact;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public Artifact getArtifact() {
+      return artifact;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FileArtifactValue getMetadata() throws IOException {
+      if (metadata == null) {
+        synchronized (this) {
+          if (metadata == null) {
+            try {
+              // TODO(shahan): {@link SkyFunction.Environment} requires single-threaded access so
+              // we enforce that here by making these (multithreaded) calls synchronized. It might
+              // be better to make the underlying methods synchronized to avoid having another
+              // caller unintentionally calling into the environment without locking.
+              //
+              // This is currently known to be reached from the distributor during remote include
+              // scanning. It might make sense to instead of bubbling this error out all the way
+              // from within the distributor, to ensure that this metadata value exists when
+              // creating the spawn from the include parser, which will require slightly fewer
+              // layers of error propagation and there is some batching opportunity (across the
+              // parallel expansion of the include scanner).
+              synchronized (env) {
+                metadata = (FileArtifactValue) env.getValue(ArtifactSkyKey.key(artifact, false));
+              }
+            } catch (InterruptedException e) {
+              throw new InterruptedIOException(e.getMessage());
+            }
+            if (metadata == null) {
+              throw new ActionExecutionFunction.MissingDepException();
+            }
+            updateReverseMapIfDigestExists(metadata, artifact);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+      return metadata;
+    }
+
+    public boolean hasMetadata() {
+      return metadata != null;
+    }
+  }
+
+  private class ArtifactAndMutableMetadata extends ArtifactAndMetadata {
+    private final Artifact artifact;
+    @Nullable private volatile FileArtifactValue metadata = null;
+
+    @Override
+    public Artifact getArtifact() {
+      return artifact;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    @Nullable
+    public FileArtifactValue getMetadata() {
+      return metadata;
+    }
+
+    public void setMetadata(FileArtifactValue metadata) throws IOException {
+      metadataConsumer.accept(artifact, metadata);
+      this.metadata = metadata;
+    }
+
+    private ArtifactAndMutableMetadata(Artifact artifact) {
+      this.artifact = artifact;
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionMetadataHandler.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionMetadataHandler.java
index fe6e8af..2b001d9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionMetadataHandler.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionMetadataHandler.java
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@
       return null;
     }
 
-    return Preconditions.checkNotNull(inputArtifactData.get(input), input);
+    return inputArtifactData.get(input);
   }
 
   @Override
@@ -478,36 +478,31 @@
         size,
         locationIndex);
 
-    Preconditions.checkState(injectedFiles.add(output), output);
-
     // TODO(shahan): there are a couple of things that could reduce memory usage
     // 1. We might be able to skip creating an entry in `outputArtifactData` and only create
     // the `FileArtifactValue`, but there are likely downstream consumers that expect it that
     // would need to be cleaned up.
     // 2. Instead of creating an `additionalOutputData` entry, we could add the extra
     // `locationIndex` to `FileStateValue`.
-    FileStateValue fileStateValue =
-        new FileStateValue.RegularFileStateValue(size, digest, /*contentsProxy=*/ null);
-    RootedPath rootedPath =
-        RootedPath.toRootedPath(output.getRoot().getRoot(), output.getRootRelativePath());
-    FileValue value = FileValue.value(rootedPath, fileStateValue, rootedPath, fileStateValue);
-    FileValue oldFsValue = outputArtifactData.putIfAbsent(output, value);
     try {
-      checkInconsistentData(output, oldFsValue, value);
+      injectOutputData(
+          output,
+          new FileArtifactValue.RemoteFileArtifactValue(digest, size, modifiedTime, locationIndex));
     } catch (IOException e) {
-      // Should never happen.
-      throw new IllegalStateException("Inconsistent FileValues for " + output, e);
+      throw new IllegalStateException(e); // Should never happen.
     }
+  }
 
-    FileArtifactValue artifactValue =
-        new FileArtifactValue.RemoteFileArtifactValue(digest, size, modifiedTime, locationIndex);
+  public void injectOutputData(Artifact output, FileArtifactValue artifactValue)
+      throws IOException {
+    Preconditions.checkState(injectedFiles.add(output), output);
+    // While `artifactValue` carries the important information, the control flow of `getMetadata`
+    // requires an entry in `outputArtifactData` to access `additionalOutputData`, so a
+    // `PLACEHOLDER` is added to `outputArtifactData`.
+    FileValue oldFileValue = outputArtifactData.putIfAbsent(output, FileValue.PLACEHOLDER);
+    checkInconsistentData(output, oldFileValue, FileValue.PLACEHOLDER);
     FileArtifactValue oldArtifactValue = additionalOutputData.putIfAbsent(output, artifactValue);
-    try {
-      checkInconsistentData(output, oldArtifactValue, artifactValue);
-    } catch (IOException e) {
-      // Should never happen.
-      throw new IllegalStateException("Inconsistent FileArtifactValues for " + output, e);
-    }
+    checkInconsistentData(output, oldArtifactValue, artifactValue);
   }
 
   @Override
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileValue.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileValue.java
index 46e75ce..eeb9fc6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileValue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/FileValue.java
@@ -51,6 +51,16 @@
 @ThreadSafe
 public abstract class FileValue implements SkyValue {
 
+  /**
+   * Exists to accommodate the control flow of {@link ActionMetadataHandler#getMetadata}.
+   *
+   * <p>{@link ActionMetadataHandler#getMetadata} always checks {@link
+   * ActionMetadataHandler#outputArtifactData} before checking {@link
+   * ActionMetadataHandler#additionalOutputData} so some placeholder value is needed to allow an
+   * injected {@link FileArtifactValue} to be returned.
+   */
+  @AutoCodec public static final FileValue PLACEHOLDER = new PlaceholderFileValue();
+
   public boolean exists() {
     return realFileStateValue().getType() != FileStateType.NONEXISTENT;
   }
@@ -315,4 +325,18 @@
           realRootedPath, realFileStateValue, linkTarget);
     }
   }
+
+  private static final class PlaceholderFileValue extends FileValue {
+    private PlaceholderFileValue() {}
+
+    @Override
+    public RootedPath realRootedPath() {
+      throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FileStateValue realFileStateValue() {
+      throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
+    }
+  }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
index c02ca2c..e63ae09 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
@@ -103,6 +103,7 @@
 import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.UUID;
 import java.util.concurrent.Callable;
+import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import javax.annotation.Nullable;
 
@@ -151,7 +152,8 @@
       List<BuildFileName> buildFilesByPriority,
       ActionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
+      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
     super(
         evaluatorSupplier,
         pkgFactory,
@@ -170,7 +172,8 @@
         /*shouldUnblockCpuWorkWhenFetchingDeps=*/ false,
         defaultBuildOptions,
         new PackageProgressReceiver(),
-        mutableArtifactFactorySupplier);
+        mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
+        usesActionFileSystem);
     this.diffAwarenessManager = new DiffAwarenessManager(diffAwarenessFactories);
     this.customDirtinessCheckers = customDirtinessCheckers;
   }
@@ -207,7 +210,8 @@
         buildFilesByPriority,
         actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
         defaultBuildOptions,
-        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier());
+        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier(),
+        /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
   }
 
   public static SequencedSkyframeExecutor create(
@@ -226,7 +230,8 @@
       List<BuildFileName> buildFilesByPriority,
       ActionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
+      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
     SequencedSkyframeExecutor skyframeExecutor =
         new SequencedSkyframeExecutor(
             InMemoryMemoizingEvaluator.SUPPLIER,
@@ -245,7 +250,8 @@
             buildFilesByPriority,
             actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
             defaultBuildOptions,
-            mutableArtifactFactorySupplier);
+            mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
+            usesActionFileSystem);
     skyframeExecutor.init();
     return skyframeExecutor;
   }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
index 27f8301..49aea6d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@
         BazelSkyframeExecutorConstants.BUILD_FILES_BY_PRIORITY,
         BazelSkyframeExecutorConstants.ACTION_ON_IO_EXCEPTION_READING_BUILD_FILE,
         defaultBuildOptions,
-        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier());
+        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier(),
+        /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
index 221fc92..37683f3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
@@ -32,7 +32,6 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutedEvent;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutedEvent.ErrorTiming;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionContext;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionContextFactory;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionStatusReporter;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionGraph;
@@ -104,6 +103,7 @@
 import java.util.concurrent.FutureTask;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference;
 import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
+import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import javax.annotation.Nullable;
 
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@
  * Action executor: takes care of preparing an action for execution, executing it, validating that
  * all output artifacts were created, error reporting, etc.
  */
-public final class SkyframeActionExecutor implements ActionExecutionContextFactory {
+public final class SkyframeActionExecutor {
   private static final Logger logger = Logger.getLogger(SkyframeActionExecutor.class.getName());
 
   // Used to prevent check-then-act races in #createOutputDirectories. See the comment there for
@@ -157,12 +157,15 @@
 
   private final AtomicReference<ActionExecutionStatusReporter> statusReporterRef;
   private OutputService outputService;
+  private final BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem;
 
   SkyframeActionExecutor(
       ActionKeyContext actionKeyContext,
-      AtomicReference<ActionExecutionStatusReporter> statusReporterRef) {
+      AtomicReference<ActionExecutionStatusReporter> statusReporterRef,
+      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
     this.actionKeyContext = actionKeyContext;
     this.statusReporterRef = statusReporterRef;
+    this.usesActionFileSystem = usesActionFileSystem;
   }
 
   /**
@@ -356,6 +359,10 @@
     this.clientEnv = clientEnv;
   }
 
+  public boolean usesActionFileSystem() {
+    return usesActionFileSystem.getAsBoolean();
+  }
+
   void executionOver() {
     this.reporter = null;
     // This transitively holds a bunch of heavy objects, so it's important to clear it at the
@@ -481,23 +488,24 @@
    * pass the returned context to {@link #executeAction}, and any other method that needs to execute
    * tasks related to that action.
    */
-  @Override
   public ActionExecutionContext getContext(
       ActionInputFileCache graphFileCache,
       MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
       Map<Artifact, Collection<Artifact>> expandedInputs,
-      ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings) {
+      ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings,
+      @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem) {
     FileOutErr fileOutErr = actionLogBufferPathGenerator.generate();
     return new ActionExecutionContext(
         executorEngine,
-        new DelegatingPairFileCache(graphFileCache, perBuildFileCache),
+        createFileCache(graphFileCache, actionFileSystem),
         actionInputPrefetcher,
         actionKeyContext,
         metadataHandler,
         fileOutErr,
         clientEnv,
         inputFilesetMappings,
-        new ArtifactExpanderImpl(expandedInputs));
+        new ArtifactExpanderImpl(expandedInputs),
+        actionFileSystem);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -606,18 +614,21 @@
       Action action,
       PerActionFileCache graphFileCache,
       MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
-      Environment env)
+      Environment env,
+      @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem)
       throws ActionExecutionException, InterruptedException {
+    ActionInputFileCache cache;
     ActionExecutionContext actionExecutionContext =
         ActionExecutionContext.forInputDiscovery(
             executorEngine,
-            new DelegatingPairFileCache(graphFileCache, perBuildFileCache),
+            createFileCache(graphFileCache, actionFileSystem),
             actionInputPrefetcher,
             actionKeyContext,
             metadataHandler,
             actionLogBufferPathGenerator.generate(),
             clientEnv,
-            env);
+            env,
+            actionFileSystem);
     try {
       actionExecutionContext.getEventBus().post(ActionStatusMessage.analysisStrategy(action));
       return action.discoverInputs(actionExecutionContext);
@@ -631,6 +642,14 @@
     }
   }
 
+  private ActionInputFileCache createFileCache(
+      ActionInputFileCache graphFileCache, @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem) {
+    if (actionFileSystem != null) {
+      return actionFileSystem;
+    }
+    return new DelegatingPairFileCache(graphFileCache, perBuildFileCache);
+  }
+
   /**
    * This method should be called if the builder encounters an error during
    * execution. This allows the builder to record that it encountered at
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
index d05b137..2da54f5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
@@ -38,7 +38,6 @@
 import com.google.common.eventbus.EventBus;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionAnalysisMetadata;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionCacheChecker;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionContextFactory;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionStatusReporter;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionGraph;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputFileCache;
@@ -180,6 +179,7 @@
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference;
+import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
 import java.util.stream.Stream;
@@ -342,7 +342,8 @@
       boolean shouldUnblockCpuWorkWhenFetchingDeps,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
       @Nullable PackageProgressReceiver packageProgress,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier artifactResolverSupplier) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier artifactResolverSupplier,
+      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
     // Strictly speaking, these arguments are not required for initialization, but all current
     // callsites have them at hand, so we might as well set them during construction.
     this.evaluatorSupplier = evaluatorSupplier;
@@ -354,7 +355,8 @@
         new SkyframePackageLoader(), new SkyframeTransitivePackageLoader(),
         syscalls, cyclesReporter, pkgLocator, numPackagesLoaded, this);
     this.resourceManager = ResourceManager.instance();
-    this.skyframeActionExecutor = new SkyframeActionExecutor(actionKeyContext, statusReporterRef);
+    this.skyframeActionExecutor =
+        new SkyframeActionExecutor(actionKeyContext, statusReporterRef, usesActionFileSystem);
     this.fileSystem = fileSystem;
     this.directories = Preconditions.checkNotNull(directories);
     this.actionKeyContext = Preconditions.checkNotNull(actionKeyContext);
@@ -977,10 +979,6 @@
     return eventBus.get();
   }
 
-  public ActionExecutionContextFactory getActionExecutionContextFactory() {
-    return skyframeActionExecutor;
-  }
-
   @VisibleForTesting
   ImmutableList<Root> getPathEntries() {
     return pkgLocator.get().getPathEntries();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/AbstractFileSystem.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/AbstractFileSystem.java
index 4d47205..3159c21 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/AbstractFileSystem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/AbstractFileSystem.java
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
 
 /** This class implements the FileSystem interface using direct calls to the UNIX filesystem. */
 @ThreadSafe
-abstract class AbstractFileSystem extends FileSystem {
+public abstract class AbstractFileSystem extends FileSystem {
 
   protected static final String ERR_PERMISSION_DENIED = " (Permission denied)";
   protected static final Profiler profiler = Profiler.instance();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ExecutableSymlinkActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ExecutableSymlinkActionTest.java
index 6124b91..9f233b3 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ExecutableSymlinkActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ExecutableSymlinkActionTest.java
@@ -65,6 +65,7 @@
         outErr,
         ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
         ImmutableMap.of(),
+        null,
         null);
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
index 29e9c23..45a0cb1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/util/ActionsTestUtil.java
@@ -146,7 +146,8 @@
         ImmutableMap.of(),
         actionGraph == null
             ? createDummyArtifactExpander()
-            : ActionInputHelper.actionGraphArtifactExpander(actionGraph));
+            : ActionInputHelper.actionGraphArtifactExpander(actionGraph),
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   public static ActionExecutionContext createContextForInputDiscovery(
@@ -165,7 +166,8 @@
         fileOutErr,
         ImmutableMap.of(),
         new BlockingSkyFunctionEnvironment(
-            buildDriver, executor == null ? null : executor.getEventHandler()));
+            buildDriver, executor == null ? null : executor.getEventHandler()),
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   public static ActionExecutionContext createContext(ExtendedEventHandler eventHandler) {
@@ -179,7 +181,8 @@
         null,
         ImmutableMap.of(),
         ImmutableMap.of(),
-        createDummyArtifactExpander());
+        createDummyArtifactExpander(),
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   private static ArtifactExpander createDummyArtifactExpander() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/FileWriteActionTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/FileWriteActionTestCase.java
index 147c692..12cbfb4 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/FileWriteActionTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/FileWriteActionTestCase.java
@@ -67,6 +67,7 @@
             new FileOutErr(),
             ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
             ImmutableMap.of(),
+            null,
             null);
   }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
index a212893..11ced4c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/ParamFileWriteActionTest.java
@@ -179,7 +179,8 @@
         new FileOutErr(),
         ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
         ImmutableMap.of(),
-        artifactExpander);
+        artifactExpander,
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   private enum KeyAttributes {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SymlinkActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SymlinkActionTest.java
index 7544613..c3e2561 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SymlinkActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/SymlinkActionTest.java
@@ -89,7 +89,8 @@
                 null,
                 ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
                 ImmutableMap.of(),
-                null));
+                null,
+                /*actionFileSystem=*/ null));
     assertThat(actionResult.spawnResults()).isEmpty();
     assertThat(output.isSymbolicLink()).isTrue();
     assertThat(output.resolveSymbolicLinks()).isEqualTo(input);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/TemplateExpansionActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/TemplateExpansionActionTest.java
index 9f2cd5e..81dc77b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/TemplateExpansionActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/actions/TemplateExpansionActionTest.java
@@ -192,7 +192,8 @@
         new FileOutErr(),
         ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
         ImmutableMap.of(),
-        null);
+        null,
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   private void executeTemplateExpansion(String expected) throws Exception {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
index eaca063..b917b32 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/analysis/util/BuildViewTestCase.java
@@ -2091,7 +2091,8 @@
           actionLogBufferPathGenerator.generate(),
           clientEnv,
           ImmutableMap.of(),
-          artifactExpander);
+          artifactExpander,
+          /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
index 9408eda..2f4a8e5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/CreateIncSymlinkActionTest.java
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@
   private ActionExecutionContext makeDummyContext() {
     DummyExecutor executor = new DummyExecutor(fileSystem, rootDirectory);
     return new ActionExecutionContext(
-        executor, null, null, null, null, null, ImmutableMap.of(), ImmutableMap.of(), null);
+        executor, null, null, null, null, null, ImmutableMap.of(), ImmutableMap.of(), null, null);
   }
 
   @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LtoBackendActionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LtoBackendActionTest.java
index 59fd9bf..3e0d629 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LtoBackendActionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/cpp/LtoBackendActionTest.java
@@ -88,7 +88,8 @@
             new FileOutErr(),
             ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
             ImmutableMap.of(),
-            null);
+            null,
+            /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/objc/BazelJ2ObjcLibraryTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/objc/BazelJ2ObjcLibraryTest.java
index 9b77e71..0120bfc 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/objc/BazelJ2ObjcLibraryTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/rules/objc/BazelJ2ObjcLibraryTest.java
@@ -784,7 +784,8 @@
             null,
             ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
             ImmutableMap.of(),
-            DUMMY_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER);
+            DUMMY_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER,
+            null);
     ByteArrayOutputStream moduleMapStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
     ByteArrayOutputStream umbrellaHeaderStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
     moduleMapAction.newDeterministicWriter(dummyActionExecutionContext)
@@ -834,7 +835,8 @@
             null,
             ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
             ImmutableMap.of(),
-            DUMMY_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER);
+            DUMMY_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER,
+            null);
 
     ByteArrayOutputStream moduleMapStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
     ByteArrayOutputStream umbrellaHeaderStream = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
index b327612..e80ec31 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
@@ -185,7 +185,10 @@
     ActionExecutionStatusReporter statusReporter =
         ActionExecutionStatusReporter.create(new StoredEventHandler());
     final SkyframeActionExecutor skyframeActionExecutor =
-        new SkyframeActionExecutor(actionKeyContext, new AtomicReference<>(statusReporter));
+        new SkyframeActionExecutor(
+            actionKeyContext,
+            new AtomicReference<>(statusReporter),
+            /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
 
     Path actionOutputBase = scratch.dir("/usr/local/google/_blaze_jrluser/FAKEMD5/action_out/");
     skyframeActionExecutor.setActionLogBufferPathGenerator(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/standalone/StandaloneSpawnStrategyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/standalone/StandaloneSpawnStrategyTest.java
index 04d416be..5ef553f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/standalone/StandaloneSpawnStrategyTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/standalone/StandaloneSpawnStrategyTest.java
@@ -192,7 +192,8 @@
         outErr,
         ImmutableMap.<String, String>of(),
         ImmutableMap.of(),
-        SIMPLE_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER);
+        SIMPLE_ARTIFACT_EXPANDER,
+        /*actionFileSystem=*/ null);
   }
 
   @Test