diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/BUILD b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/BUILD
index b1dd9fd..210db2e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/BUILD
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/BUILD
@@ -583,6 +583,7 @@
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skylarkbuildapi/platform",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skylarkbuildapi/test",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs:output_service",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe:skyframe-objects",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/common/options",
@@ -1315,6 +1316,7 @@
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/shell",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skylarkdebug/module:options",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs:output_service",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/windows",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe",
         "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe:skyframe-objects",
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactSkyKey.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactSkyKey.java
similarity index 95%
rename from src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactSkyKey.java
rename to src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactSkyKey.java
index e63b73c..701aaca 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactSkyKey.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/ArtifactSkyKey.java
@@ -11,11 +11,10 @@
 // WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions;
 
 import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
 import com.google.common.collect.Interner;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.concurrent.BlazeInterners;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.concurrent.ThreadSafety;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.serialization.autocodec.AutoCodec;
@@ -84,7 +83,7 @@
     return artifact.equals(thatArtifactSkyKey.artifact);
   }
 
-  Artifact getArtifact() {
+  public Artifact getArtifact() {
     return artifact;
   }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/InjectionListener.java
similarity index 89%
rename from src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
rename to src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/InjectionListener.java
index bf7350b..28d773f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/InjectionListener.java
@@ -12,9 +12,8 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions;
 
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
 import java.io.IOException;
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MetadataConsumer.java
similarity index 64%
copy from src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
copy to src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MetadataConsumer.java
index bf7350b..d737d54 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MetadataConsumer.java
@@ -11,16 +11,16 @@
 // WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions;
 
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
-
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
 import java.io.IOException;
 
 /**
- * An {@link InjectionListener} is notified when a remote file metadata is inserted into its
- * associated storage.
+ * Consumes metadata for artifacts.
+ *
+ * <p>May be called when metadata isn't otherwise propagated at the spawn level.
  */
-public interface InjectionListener {
-  void onInsert(ActionInput dest, byte[] digest, long size, int backendIndex) throws IOException;
+@FunctionalInterface
+public interface MetadataConsumer {
+  void accept(Artifact artifact, FileArtifactValue value) throws IOException;
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MissingDepException.java
similarity index 61%
copy from src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
copy to src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MissingDepException.java
index bf7350b..17de74f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/InjectionListener.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions/MissingDepException.java
@@ -11,16 +11,10 @@
 // WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
-
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
-
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
-import java.io.IOException;
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions;
 
 /**
- * An {@link InjectionListener} is notified when a remote file metadata is inserted into its
- * associated storage.
+ * Exception to be thrown if an action is missing Skyframe dependencies that it finds are missing
+ * during execution/input discovery.
  */
-public interface InjectionListener {
-  void onInsert(ActionInput dest, byte[] digest, long size, int backendIndex) throws IOException;
-}
+public final class MissingDepException extends RuntimeException {}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/ExecutionTool.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/ExecutionTool.java
index 78b350b..be502c6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/ExecutionTool.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/buildtool/ExecutionTool.java
@@ -74,12 +74,12 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.AspectValue.AspectKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.Builder;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.ConfiguredTargetKey;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.SkyframeExecutor;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.AbruptExitException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.LoggingUtil;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystemUtils;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.ModifiedFileSet;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SymlinkTreeStrategy.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SymlinkTreeStrategy.java
index 82b24ec..4789333 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SymlinkTreeStrategy.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/exec/SymlinkTreeStrategy.java
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.actions.SymlinkTreeAction;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.actions.SymlinkTreeActionContext;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.AutoProfiler;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.OutputService;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 
 /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/BlazeModule.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/BlazeModule.java
index c009749..0aa8138 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/BlazeModule.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/BlazeModule.java
@@ -29,11 +29,11 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.packages.Package;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.packages.PackageFactory;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.packages.RuleClassProvider;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.PrecomputedValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.AbruptExitException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.io.OutErr;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.common.options.OptionsBase;
 import com.google.devtools.common.options.OptionsClassProvider;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/CommandEnvironment.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/CommandEnvironment.java
index 34593b6..cee7cab 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/CommandEnvironment.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/runtime/CommandEnvironment.java
@@ -37,13 +37,13 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.ProfilerTask;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.SilentCloseable;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.runtime.proto.InvocationPolicyOuterClass.InvocationPolicy;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.SkyframeBuildView;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.SkyframeExecutor;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.AbruptExitException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.ExitCode;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.io.TimestampGranularityMonitor;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystemUtils;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.common.options.OptionsClassProvider;
@@ -97,9 +97,7 @@
     public Path getFileFromWorkspace(Label label)
         throws NoSuchThingException, InterruptedException, IOException {
       Target target = getPackageManager().getTarget(reporter, label);
-      return (outputService != null)
-          ? outputService.stageTool(target)
-          : target.getPackage().getPackageDirectory().getRelative(target.getName());
+      return target.getPackage().getPackageDirectory().getRelative(target.getName());
     }
 
     @Override
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionArtifactCycleReporter.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionArtifactCycleReporter.java
index 8112076..76c7304 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionArtifactCycleReporter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionArtifactCycleReporter.java
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
 import com.google.common.collect.Iterables;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionLookupData;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.cmdline.Label;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.pkgcache.PackageProvider;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.TargetCompletionValue.TargetCompletionKey;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
index 6f5044f..b740a49 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionExecutionFunction.java
@@ -32,8 +32,10 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.AlreadyReportedActionExecutionException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactPathResolver;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FilesetOutputSymlink;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MissingDepException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MissingInputFileException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.NotifyOnActionCacheHit;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.PackageRootResolver;
@@ -48,6 +50,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.rules.cpp.IncludeScannable;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.Pair;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.io.TimestampGranularityMonitor;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
 import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction;
@@ -210,11 +213,8 @@
           optionalInputs = ImmutableList.of();
         }
         state.actionFileSystem =
-            new ActionFileSystem(
-                skyframeActionExecutor.getExecutorFileSystem(),
-                skyframeActionExecutor.getExecRoot().asFragment(),
+            skyframeActionExecutor.createActionFileSystem(
                 directories.getRelativeOutputPath(),
-                skyframeActionExecutor.getSourceRoots(),
                 checkedInputs.first,
                 optionalInputs,
                 action.getOutputs());
@@ -429,7 +429,7 @@
     if (action.discoversInputs()) {
       if (state.discoveredInputs == null) {
         try {
-          state.updateFileSystemContext(env, metadataHandler);
+          state.updateFileSystemContext(skyframeActionExecutor, env, metadataHandler);
           state.discoveredInputs =
               skyframeActionExecutor.discoverInputs(
                   action, perActionFileCache, metadataHandler, env, state.actionFileSystem);
@@ -495,7 +495,7 @@
       filesetMappings.put(actionInput.getExecPath(), filesetValue.getOutputSymlinks());
     }
 
-    state.updateFileSystemContext(env, metadataHandler);
+    state.updateFileSystemContext(skyframeActionExecutor, env, metadataHandler);
     try (ActionExecutionContext actionExecutionContext =
         skyframeActionExecutor.getContext(
             perActionFileCache,
@@ -550,12 +550,9 @@
     return state.value;
   }
 
-  private ArtifactPathResolver pathResolver(ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem) {
-    if (actionFileSystem != null) {
-      return ArtifactPathResolver.withTransformedFileSystem(
-          actionFileSystem.getPath(skyframeActionExecutor.getExecRoot().asFragment()));
-    }
-    return ArtifactPathResolver.forExecRoot(skyframeActionExecutor.getExecRoot());
+  private ArtifactPathResolver pathResolver(@Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
+    return ArtifactPathResolver.createPathResolver(
+        actionFileSystem, skyframeActionExecutor.getExecRoot());
   }
 
   private static final Function<Artifact, SkyKey> TO_NONMANDATORY_SKYKEY =
@@ -774,12 +771,6 @@
   }
 
   /**
-   * Exception to be thrown if an action is missing Skyframe dependencies that it finds are missing
-   * during execution/input discovery.
-   */
-  public static class MissingDepException extends RuntimeException {}
-
-  /**
    * Should be called once execution is over, and the intra-build cache of in-progress computations
    * should be discarded. If the cache is non-empty (due to an interrupted/failed build), failure to
    * call complete() can both cause a memory leak and incorrect results on the subsequent build.
@@ -824,7 +815,7 @@
     Iterable<Artifact> discoveredInputs = null;
     Iterable<Artifact> discoveredInputsStage2 = null;
     ActionExecutionValue value = null;
-    ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem = null;
+    FileSystem actionFileSystem = null;
 
     boolean hasCollectedInputs() {
       return allInputs != null;
@@ -848,9 +839,12 @@
 
     /** Must be called to assign values to the given variables as they change. */
     void updateFileSystemContext(
-        SkyFunction.Environment env, ActionMetadataHandler metadataHandler) {
+        SkyframeActionExecutor executor,
+        SkyFunction.Environment env,
+        ActionMetadataHandler metadataHandler) {
       if (actionFileSystem != null) {
-        actionFileSystem.updateContext(env, metadataHandler::injectOutputData);
+        executor.updateActionFileSystemContext(
+            actionFileSystem, env, metadataHandler::injectOutputData);
       }
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java
deleted file mode 100644
index e543035..0000000
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystem.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,687 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Bazel Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-//
-//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
-
-import static java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.US_ASCII;
-
-import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
-import com.google.common.cache.CacheBuilder;
-import com.google.common.cache.CacheLoader;
-import com.google.common.cache.LoadingCache;
-import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
-import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableMap;
-import com.google.common.collect.Streams;
-import com.google.common.hash.Hashing;
-import com.google.common.io.BaseEncoding;
-import com.google.common.io.ByteStreams;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue.InlineFileArtifactValue;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue.RemoteFileArtifactValue;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue.SourceFileArtifactValue;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileStateType;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataProvider;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.Profiler;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.ProfilerTask;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.profiler.SilentCloseable;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.AbstractFileSystemWithCustomStat;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileStatus;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
-import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction;
-import com.google.protobuf.ByteString;
-import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
-import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
-import java.io.IOException;
-import java.io.InputStream;
-import java.io.InterruptedIOException;
-import java.io.OutputStream;
-import java.util.Collection;
-import java.util.HashMap;
-import javax.annotation.Nullable;
-
-/**
- * File system for actions.
- *
- * <p>This class is thread-safe except that
- *
- * <ul>
- *   <li>{@link updateContext} must be called exclusively of any other methods.
- *   <li>This class relies on synchronized access to {@link env}. If there are other threads, that
- *       access {@link env}, they must also used synchronized access.
- * </ul>
- */
-final class ActionFileSystem extends AbstractFileSystemWithCustomStat
-    implements MetadataProvider, InjectionListener {
-  private static final BaseEncoding LOWER_CASE_HEX = BaseEncoding.base16().lowerCase();
-
-  /** Actual underlying filesystem. */
-  private final FileSystem delegate;
-
-  private final PathFragment execRootFragment;
-  private final PathFragment outputPathFragment;
-  private final ImmutableList<PathFragment> sourceRoots;
-
-  private final ActionInputMap inputArtifactData;
-
-  /** exec path → artifact and metadata */
-  private final HashMap<PathFragment, OptionalInputMetadata> optionalInputs;
-
-  /** exec path → artifact and metadata */
-  private final LoadingCache<PathFragment, OutputMetadata> outputs;
-
-  /** Used to lookup metadata for optional inputs. */
-  private SkyFunction.Environment env = null;
-
-  /**
-   * Called whenever there is new metadata for an output.
-   *
-   * <p>This is backed by injection into an {@link ActionMetadataHandler} instance so should only be
-   * called once per artifact.
-   */
-  private MetadataConsumer metadataConsumer = null;
-
-  ActionFileSystem(
-      FileSystem delegate,
-      PathFragment execRoot,
-      String relativeOutputPath,
-      ImmutableList<Root> sourceRoots,
-      ActionInputMap inputArtifactData,
-      Iterable<Artifact> allowedInputs,
-      Iterable<Artifact> outputArtifacts) {
-    try (SilentCloseable c =
-        Profiler.instance().profile(ProfilerTask.ACTION_FS_STAGING, "staging")) {
-      this.delegate = delegate;
-
-      this.execRootFragment = execRoot;
-      this.outputPathFragment = execRootFragment.getRelative(relativeOutputPath);
-      this.sourceRoots =
-          sourceRoots
-              .stream()
-              .map(root -> root.asPath().asFragment())
-              .collect(ImmutableList.toImmutableList());
-
-      validateRoots();
-
-      this.inputArtifactData = inputArtifactData;
-
-      this.optionalInputs = new HashMap<>();
-      for (Artifact input : allowedInputs) {
-        // Skips staging source artifacts as a performance optimization. We may want to stage them
-        // if we want stricter enforcement of source sandboxing.
-        //
-        // TODO(shahan): there are no currently known cases where metadata is requested for an
-        // optional source input. If there are any, we may want to stage those.
-        if (input.isSourceArtifact() || inputArtifactData.getMetadata(input) != null) {
-          continue;
-        }
-        optionalInputs.computeIfAbsent(
-            input.getExecPath(), unused -> new OptionalInputMetadata(input));
-      }
-
-      ImmutableMap<PathFragment, Artifact> outputsMapping = Streams.stream(outputArtifacts)
-          .collect(ImmutableMap.toImmutableMap(Artifact::getExecPath, a -> a));
-      this.outputs = CacheBuilder.newBuilder().build(
-          CacheLoader.from(path -> new OutputMetadata(outputsMapping.get(path))));
-    }
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Must be called prior to access and updated as needed.
-   *
-   * <p>These cannot be passed into the constructor because while {@link ActionFileSystem} is
-   * action-scoped, the environment and metadata consumer change multiple times, at well defined
-   * points, during the lifetime of an action.
-   */
-  public void updateContext(SkyFunction.Environment env, MetadataConsumer metadataConsumer) {
-    this.env = env;
-    this.metadataConsumer = metadataConsumer;
-  }
-
-  // -------------------- MetadataProvider implementation --------------------
-
-  @Override
-  @Nullable
-  public FileArtifactValue getMetadata(ActionInput actionInput) throws IOException {
-    return getMetadataChecked(actionInput.getExecPath());
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  @Nullable
-  public ActionInput getInput(String execPath) {
-    ActionInput input = inputArtifactData.getInput(execPath);
-    if (input != null) {
-      return input;
-    }
-    OptionalInputMetadata metadata =
-        optionalInputs.get(PathFragment.createAlreadyNormalized(execPath));
-    return metadata == null ? null : metadata.getArtifact();
-  }
-
-  // -------------------- InjectionListener Implementation --------------------
-
-  @Override
-  public void onInsert(ActionInput dest, byte[] digest, long size, int backendIndex)
-      throws IOException {
-    outputs.getUnchecked(dest.getExecPath()).set(
-        new RemoteFileArtifactValue(digest, size, backendIndex),
-        /*notifyConsumer=*/ false);
-  }
-
-  // -------------------- FileSystem implementation --------------------
-
-  @Override
-  public boolean supportsModifications(Path path) {
-    return isOutput(path);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public boolean supportsSymbolicLinksNatively(Path path) {
-    return isOutput(path);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected boolean supportsHardLinksNatively(Path path) {
-    return isOutput(path);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public boolean isFilePathCaseSensitive() {
-    return true;
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected FileStatus stat(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path);
-    return new FileStatus() {
-      @Override
-      public boolean isFile() {
-        return metadata.getType() == FileStateType.REGULAR_FILE;
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public boolean isDirectory() {
-        // TODO(felly): Support directory awareness, and consider disallowing directory artifacts
-        // eagerly at ActionFS construction.
-        return false;
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public boolean isSymbolicLink() {
-        // TODO(felly): We should have minimal support for symlink awareness when looking at
-        // output --> src and src --> src symlinks.
-        return false;
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public boolean isSpecialFile() {
-        return metadata.getType() == FileStateType.SPECIAL_FILE;
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public long getSize() {
-        return metadata.getSize();
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public long getLastModifiedTime() {
-        return metadata.getModifiedTime();
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public long getLastChangeTime() {
-        return metadata.getModifiedTime();
-      }
-
-      @Override
-      public long getNodeId() {
-        throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
-      }
-    };
-  }
-
-  /** ActionFileSystem currently doesn't track directories. */
-  @Override
-  public boolean createDirectory(Path path) throws IOException {
-    return true;
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public void createDirectoryAndParents(Path path) throws IOException {}
-
-  @Override
-  protected long getFileSize(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
-    return stat(path, followSymlinks).getSize();
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public boolean delete(Path path) throws IOException {
-    PathFragment execPath = asExecPath(path);
-    OutputMetadata output = outputs.getIfPresent(execPath);
-    return output != null && outputs.asMap().remove(execPath, output);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected long getLastModifiedTime(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) throws IOException {
-    return getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path).getModifiedTime();
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public void setLastModifiedTime(Path path, long newTime) throws IOException {
-    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public byte[] getxattr(Path path, String name) throws IOException {
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataChecked(asExecPath(path));
-    if (metadata instanceof RemoteFileArtifactValue) {
-      RemoteFileArtifactValue remote = (RemoteFileArtifactValue) metadata;
-      // TODO(b/80244718): inject ActionFileSystem from elsewhere and replace with correct metadata
-      return ("/CENSORED_BY_LEAKR/"
-              + remote.getLocationIndex()
-              + "/"
-              + LOWER_CASE_HEX.encode(remote.getDigest()))
-          .getBytes(US_ASCII);
-    }
-    if (metadata instanceof SourceFileArtifactValue) {
-      return resolveSourcePath((SourceFileArtifactValue) metadata).getxattr(name);
-    }
-    return getSourcePath(path.asFragment()).getxattr(name);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected byte[] getFastDigest(Path path, HashFunction hash) throws IOException {
-    if (hash != HashFunction.MD5) {
-      return null;
-    }
-    return getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(path).getDigest();
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected byte[] getDigest(Path path, HashFunction hash) throws IOException {
-    return getFastDigest(path, hash);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected Collection<String> getDirectoryEntries(Path path) throws IOException {
-    // TODO(felly): Support directory traversal.
-    return ImmutableList.of();
-  }
-
-  private static String createSymbolicLinkErrorMessage(
-      Path linkPath, PathFragment targetFragment, String message) {
-    return "createSymbolicLink(" + linkPath + ", " + targetFragment + "): " + message;
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected void createSymbolicLink(Path linkPath, PathFragment targetFragment) throws IOException {
-    // TODO(shahan): this might need to be loosened, but will require more information
-    Preconditions.checkArgument(
-        targetFragment.isAbsolute(),
-        "ActionFileSystem requires symlink targets to be absolute: %s -> %s",
-        linkPath,
-        targetFragment);
-
-    // When creating symbolic links, it matters whether target is a source path or not because
-    // the metadata needs to be handled differently in that case.
-    PathFragment targetExecPath = null;
-    int sourceRootIndex = -1; // index into sourceRoots or -1 if not a source
-    if (targetFragment.startsWith(execRootFragment)) {
-      targetExecPath = targetFragment.relativeTo(execRootFragment);
-    } else {
-      for (int i = 0; i < sourceRoots.size(); ++i) {
-        if (targetFragment.startsWith(sourceRoots.get(i))) {
-          targetExecPath = targetFragment.relativeTo(sourceRoots.get(i));
-          sourceRootIndex = i;
-          break;
-        }
-      }
-      if (sourceRootIndex == -1) {
-        throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-            linkPath
-                + " was not found under any known root: "
-                + execRootFragment
-                + ", "
-                + sourceRoots);
-      }
-    }
-
-    FileArtifactValue inputMetadata = inputArtifactData.getMetadata(targetExecPath.getPathString());
-    if (inputMetadata == null) {
-      OptionalInputMetadata metadataHolder = optionalInputs.get(targetExecPath);
-      if (metadataHolder != null) {
-        inputMetadata = metadataHolder.get();
-      }
-    }
-    if (inputMetadata == null) {
-      throw new FileNotFoundException(
-          createSymbolicLinkErrorMessage(
-              linkPath, targetFragment, targetFragment + " is not an input."));
-    }
-    OutputMetadata outputHolder = Preconditions.checkNotNull(
-        outputs.getUnchecked(asExecPath(linkPath)),
-        "Unexpected null output path: %s", linkPath);
-    if (sourceRootIndex >= 0) {
-      Preconditions.checkState(!targetExecPath.startsWith(outputPathFragment), "Target exec path "
-          + "%s does not start with output path fragment %s", targetExecPath, outputPathFragment);
-      outputHolder.set(
-          new SourceFileArtifactValue(
-              targetExecPath, sourceRootIndex, inputMetadata.getDigest(), inputMetadata.getSize()),
-          true);
-    } else {
-      outputHolder.set(inputMetadata, /*notifyConsumer=*/ true);
-    }
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected PathFragment readSymbolicLink(Path path) throws IOException {
-    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(path.getPathString());
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected boolean exists(Path path, boolean followSymlinks) {
-    Preconditions.checkArgument(
-        followSymlinks, "ActionFileSystem doesn't support no-follow: %s", path);
-    return getMetadataUnchecked(path) != null;
-  }
-
-
-  @Override
-  protected boolean isReadable(Path path) throws IOException {
-    return exists(path, true);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected void setReadable(Path path, boolean readable) throws IOException {}
-
-  @Override
-  protected boolean isWritable(Path path) throws IOException {
-    return isOutput(path);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public void setWritable(Path path, boolean writable) throws IOException {}
-
-  @Override
-  protected boolean isExecutable(Path path) throws IOException {
-    return true;
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected void setExecutable(Path path, boolean executable) throws IOException {}
-
-  @Override
-  protected InputStream getInputStream(Path path) throws IOException {
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataChecked(asExecPath(path));
-    InputStream inputStream = getInputStreamFromMetadata(metadata, path);
-    if (inputStream != null) {
-      return inputStream;
-    }
-    return getSourcePath(path.asFragment()).getInputStream();
-  }
-
-  @Nullable
-  private InputStream getInputStreamFromMetadata(FileArtifactValue metadata, Path path)
-      throws IOException {
-    if (metadata instanceof InlineFileArtifactValue) {
-      return ((InlineFileArtifactValue) metadata).getInputStream();
-    }
-    if (metadata instanceof SourceFileArtifactValue) {
-      return resolveSourcePath((SourceFileArtifactValue) metadata).getInputStream();
-    }
-    if (metadata instanceof RemoteFileArtifactValue) {
-      throw new IOException("ActionFileSystem cannot read remote file: " + path);
-    }
-    return null;
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected OutputStream getOutputStream(Path path, boolean append) {
-    return outputs.getUnchecked(asExecPath(path)).getOutputStream(append, path);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  public void renameTo(Path sourcePath, Path targetPath) throws IOException {
-    PathFragment sourceExecPath = asExecPath(sourcePath);
-    OutputMetadata sourceMetadata = outputs.getIfPresent(sourceExecPath);
-    if (sourceMetadata == null) {
-      throw new IOException("No output file at " + sourcePath + " to move to " + targetPath);
-    }
-    outputs.put(asExecPath(targetPath), sourceMetadata);
-    outputs.invalidate(sourceExecPath);
-  }
-
-  @Override
-  protected void createFSDependentHardLink(Path linkPath, Path originalPath) throws IOException {
-    throw new UnsupportedOperationException(
-        "createFSDependendHardLink(" + linkPath + ", " + originalPath + ")");
-  }
-
-  // -------------------- Implementation Helpers --------------------
-
-  private PathFragment asExecPath(Path path) {
-    return asExecPath(path.asFragment());
-  }
-
-  private PathFragment asExecPath(PathFragment fragment) {
-    if (fragment.startsWith(execRootFragment)) {
-      return fragment.relativeTo(execRootFragment);
-    }
-    for (PathFragment root : sourceRoots) {
-      if (fragment.startsWith(root)) {
-        return fragment.relativeTo(root);
-      }
-    }
-    throw new IllegalArgumentException(
-        fragment + " was not found under any known root: " + execRootFragment + ", " + sourceRoots);
-  }
-
-  @Nullable
-  private FileArtifactValue getMetadataChecked(PathFragment execPath) throws IOException {
-    {
-      FileArtifactValue metadata = inputArtifactData.getMetadata(execPath.getPathString());
-      if (metadata != null) {
-        return metadata;
-      }
-    }
-    {
-      OptionalInputMetadata metadataHolder = optionalInputs.get(execPath);
-      if (metadataHolder != null) {
-        return metadataHolder.get();
-      }
-    }
-    {
-      OutputMetadata metadataHolder = outputs.getIfPresent(execPath);
-      if (metadataHolder != null) {
-        FileArtifactValue metadata = metadataHolder.get();
-        if (metadata != null) {
-          return metadata;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    return null;
-  }
-
-  private FileArtifactValue getMetadataOrThrowFileNotFound(Path path) throws IOException {
-    FileArtifactValue metadata = getMetadataChecked(asExecPath(path));
-    if (metadata == null) {
-      throw new FileNotFoundException(path.getPathString() + " was not found");
-    }
-    return metadata;
-  }
-
-  @Nullable
-  private FileArtifactValue getMetadataUnchecked(Path path) {
-    try {
-      return getMetadataChecked(asExecPath(path));
-    } catch (IOException e) {
-      throw new IllegalStateException(
-          "Error getting metadata for " + path.getPathString() + ": " + e.getMessage(), e);
-    }
-  }
-
-  private boolean isOutput(Path path) {
-    return path.asFragment().startsWith(outputPathFragment);
-  }
-
-  private Path getSourcePath(PathFragment path) throws IOException {
-    if (path.startsWith(outputPathFragment)) {
-      throw new IOException("ActionFS cannot delegate to underlying output path for " + path);
-    }
-    return delegate.getPath(path);
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Verifies that no root is the prefix of any other root.
-   *
-   * <p>TODO(shahan): if this is insufficiently general, we can topologically order on the prefix
-   * relation between roots.
-   */
-  private void validateRoots() {
-    for (PathFragment root1 : sourceRoots) {
-      Preconditions.checkState(
-          !root1.startsWith(execRootFragment), "%s starts with %s", root1, execRootFragment);
-      Preconditions.checkState(
-          !execRootFragment.startsWith(root1), "%s starts with %s", execRootFragment, root1);
-      for (PathFragment root2 : sourceRoots) {
-        if (root1 == root2) {
-          continue;
-        }
-        Preconditions.checkState(!root1.startsWith(root2), "%s starts with %s", root1, root2);
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  private static ByteString toByteString(byte[] digest) {
-    return ByteString.copyFrom(BaseEncoding.base16().lowerCase().encode(digest).getBytes(US_ASCII));
-  }
-
-  /** NB: resolves to the underlying filesytem instead of this one. */
-  private Path resolveSourcePath(SourceFileArtifactValue metadata) throws IOException {
-    return getSourcePath(sourceRoots.get(metadata.getSourceRootIndex()))
-        .getRelative(metadata.getExecPath());
-  }
-
-  @FunctionalInterface
-  public interface MetadataConsumer {
-    void accept(Artifact artifact, FileArtifactValue value) throws IOException;
-  }
-
-  private class OptionalInputMetadata {
-    private final Artifact artifact;
-    private volatile FileArtifactValue metadata = null;
-
-    private OptionalInputMetadata(Artifact artifact) {
-      this.artifact = artifact;
-    }
-
-    public Artifact getArtifact() {
-      return artifact;
-    }
-
-    public FileArtifactValue get() throws IOException {
-      if (metadata == null) {
-        synchronized (this) {
-          if (metadata == null) {
-            try {
-              // TODO(shahan): {@link SkyFunction.Environment} requires single-threaded access so
-              // we enforce that here by making these (multithreaded) calls synchronized. It might
-              // be better to make the underlying methods synchronized to avoid having another
-              // caller unintentionally calling into the environment without locking.
-              //
-              // This is currently known to be reached from the distributor during remote include
-              // scanning which we expect to propagate exceptions up for skyframe restarts.
-              synchronized (env) {
-                metadata = (FileArtifactValue) env.getValue(ArtifactSkyKey.key(artifact, false));
-              }
-            } catch (InterruptedException e) {
-              throw new InterruptedIOException(e.getMessage());
-            }
-            if (metadata == null) {
-              throw new ActionExecutionFunction.MissingDepException();
-            }
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      return metadata;
-    }
-  }
-
-  private class OutputMetadata {
-    private final @Nullable Artifact artifact;
-    @Nullable private volatile FileArtifactValue metadata = null;
-
-    private OutputMetadata(Artifact artifact) {
-      this.artifact = artifact;
-    }
-
-    @Nullable
-    public FileArtifactValue get() {
-      return metadata;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Sets the output metadata, and maybe notify the metadataConsumer.
-     *
-     * @param metadata the metadata to write
-     * @param notifyConsumer whether to notify metadataConsumer. Callers should not notify the
-     * metadataConsumer if it will be notified separately at the Spawn level.
-     */
-    public void set(FileArtifactValue metadata, boolean notifyConsumer) throws IOException {
-      if (notifyConsumer && artifact != null) {
-        metadataConsumer.accept(artifact, metadata);
-      }
-      this.metadata = metadata;
-    }
-
-    /** Callers are expected to close the returned stream. */
-    public ByteArrayOutputStream getOutputStream(boolean append, Path path) {
-      ByteArrayOutputStream baos = new ByteArrayOutputStream() {
-        @Override
-        public void close() throws IOException {
-          flushInternal(true);
-          super.close();
-        }
-
-        @Override
-        public void flush() throws IOException {
-          flushInternal(false);
-        }
-
-        private void flushInternal(boolean notify) throws IOException {
-          super.flush();
-          byte[] data = toByteArray();
-          set(new InlineFileArtifactValue(data, Hashing.md5().hashBytes(data).asBytes()),
-              /*notifyConsumer=*/ notify);
-        }
-      };
-
-      if (append && metadata != null) {
-        try (InputStream in = getInputStreamFromMetadata(metadata, path)) {
-          if (in == null) {
-            throw new IOException("Unable to read file " + path + " with metadata " + metadata);
-          }
-          ByteStreams.copy(in, baos);
-        } catch (IOException e) {
-          throw new IllegalStateException(e);
-        }
-      }
-      return baos;
-    }
-  }
-}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunction.java
index d49d533..2a97fcf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionTemplateExpansionFunction.java
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Actions.GeneratingActions;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactPrefixConflictException;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MutableActionGraph.ActionConflictException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.events.Event;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe.ActionTemplateExpansionValue.ActionTemplateExpansionKey;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunction.java
index e35be19..ac2f4cd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunction.java
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactOwner;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MissingInputFileException;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/CompletionFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/CompletionFunction.java
index 3916b7b..0f07d7e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/CompletionFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/CompletionFunction.java
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MissingInputFileException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.AspectCompleteEvent;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.analysis.ConfiguredTarget;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunction.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunction.java
index a03f879..d91e46e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunction.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunction.java
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 import com.google.common.base.Verify;
 import com.google.common.collect.Collections2;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileStateValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileValue;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
index b1cd6b0..97f06fe 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutor.java
@@ -103,7 +103,6 @@
 import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.UUID;
 import java.util.concurrent.Callable;
-import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import javax.annotation.Nullable;
 
@@ -152,8 +151,7 @@
       List<BuildFileName> buildFilesByPriority,
       ActionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
-      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier) {
     super(
         evaluatorSupplier,
         pkgFactory,
@@ -173,8 +171,7 @@
         GraphInconsistencyReceiver.THROWING,
         defaultBuildOptions,
         new PackageProgressReceiver(),
-        mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
-        usesActionFileSystem);
+        mutableArtifactFactorySupplier);
     this.diffAwarenessManager = new DiffAwarenessManager(diffAwarenessFactories);
     this.customDirtinessCheckers = customDirtinessCheckers;
   }
@@ -211,8 +208,7 @@
         buildFilesByPriority,
         actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
         defaultBuildOptions,
-        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier(),
-        /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
+        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier());
   }
 
   public static SequencedSkyframeExecutor create(
@@ -231,8 +227,7 @@
       List<BuildFileName> buildFilesByPriority,
       ActionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
-      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier mutableArtifactFactorySupplier) {
     SequencedSkyframeExecutor skyframeExecutor =
         new SequencedSkyframeExecutor(
             InMemoryMemoizingEvaluator.SUPPLIER,
@@ -251,8 +246,7 @@
             buildFilesByPriority,
             actionOnIOExceptionReadingBuildFile,
             defaultBuildOptions,
-            mutableArtifactFactorySupplier,
-            usesActionFileSystem);
+            mutableArtifactFactorySupplier);
     skyframeExecutor.init();
     return skyframeExecutor;
   }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
index 49aea6d..27f8301 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SequencedSkyframeExecutorFactory.java
@@ -64,7 +64,6 @@
         BazelSkyframeExecutorConstants.BUILD_FILES_BY_PRIORITY,
         BazelSkyframeExecutorConstants.ACTION_ON_IO_EXCEPTION_READING_BUILD_FILE,
         defaultBuildOptions,
-        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier(),
-        /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
+        new MutableArtifactFactorySupplier());
   }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
index c515163..0e009cd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeActionExecutor.java
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionExecutionStatusReporter;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionGraph;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputPrefetcher;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionKeyContext;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionLogBufferPathGenerator;
@@ -59,6 +60,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FilesetOutputSymlink;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MapBasedActionGraph;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataConsumer;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataProvider;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MutableActionGraph;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MutableActionGraph.ActionConflictException;
@@ -82,6 +84,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.io.FileOutErr;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.io.OutErr;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
@@ -106,7 +109,6 @@
 import java.util.concurrent.FutureTask;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference;
 import java.util.concurrent.locks.Lock;
-import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.function.Supplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import javax.annotation.Nullable;
@@ -163,17 +165,14 @@
   private final AtomicReference<ActionExecutionStatusReporter> statusReporterRef;
   private OutputService outputService;
   private final Supplier<ImmutableList<Root>> sourceRootSupplier;
-  private final BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem;
 
   SkyframeActionExecutor(
       ActionKeyContext actionKeyContext,
       AtomicReference<ActionExecutionStatusReporter> statusReporterRef,
-      Supplier<ImmutableList<Root>> sourceRootSupplier,
-      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
+      Supplier<ImmutableList<Root>> sourceRootSupplier) {
     this.actionKeyContext = actionKeyContext;
     this.statusReporterRef = statusReporterRef;
     this.sourceRootSupplier = sourceRootSupplier;
-    this.usesActionFileSystem = usesActionFileSystem;
   }
 
   /**
@@ -367,20 +366,33 @@
     this.clientEnv = clientEnv;
   }
 
-  public FileSystem getExecutorFileSystem() {
-    return executorEngine.getFileSystem();
+  boolean usesActionFileSystem() {
+    return outputService != null && outputService.supportsActionFileSystem();
   }
 
-  public Path getExecRoot() {
+  Path getExecRoot() {
     return executorEngine.getExecRoot();
   }
 
-  public ImmutableList<Root> getSourceRoots() {
-    return sourceRootSupplier.get();
+  /** REQUIRES: {@link usesActionFileSystem} is true */
+  FileSystem createActionFileSystem(
+      String relativeOutputPath,
+      ActionInputMap inputArtifactData,
+      Iterable<Artifact> allowedInputs,
+      Iterable<Artifact> outputArtifacts) {
+    return outputService.createActionFileSystem(
+        executorEngine.getFileSystem(),
+        executorEngine.getExecRoot().asFragment(),
+        relativeOutputPath,
+        sourceRootSupplier.get(),
+        inputArtifactData,
+        allowedInputs,
+        outputArtifacts);
   }
 
-  public boolean usesActionFileSystem() {
-    return usesActionFileSystem.getAsBoolean();
+  void updateActionFileSystemContext(
+      FileSystem actionFileSystem, Environment env, MetadataConsumer consumer) {
+    outputService.updateActionFileSystemContext(actionFileSystem, env, consumer);
   }
 
   void executionOver() {
@@ -520,7 +532,7 @@
       MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
       Map<Artifact, Collection<Artifact>> expandedInputs,
       ImmutableMap<PathFragment, ImmutableList<FilesetOutputSymlink>> inputFilesetMappings,
-      @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem) {
+      @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
     FileOutErr fileOutErr = actionLogBufferPathGenerator.generate(
         ArtifactPathResolver.createPathResolver(actionFileSystem, executorEngine.getExecRoot()));
     return new ActionExecutionContext(
@@ -648,7 +660,7 @@
       PerActionFileCache graphFileCache,
       MetadataHandler metadataHandler,
       Environment env,
-      @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem)
+      @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem)
       throws ActionExecutionException, InterruptedException {
     ActionExecutionContext actionExecutionContext =
         ActionExecutionContext.forInputDiscovery(
@@ -676,9 +688,9 @@
   }
 
   private MetadataProvider createFileCache(
-      MetadataProvider graphFileCache, @Nullable ActionFileSystem actionFileSystem) {
-    if (actionFileSystem != null) {
-      return actionFileSystem;
+      MetadataProvider graphFileCache, @Nullable FileSystem actionFileSystem) {
+    if (actionFileSystem instanceof MetadataProvider) {
+      return (MetadataProvider) actionFileSystem;
     }
     return new DelegatingPairFileCache(graphFileCache, perBuildFileCache);
   }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
index f024250..b498a6e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/SkyframeExecutor.java
@@ -138,6 +138,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Dirent;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.ModifiedFileSet;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.OutputService;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Root;
@@ -179,7 +180,6 @@
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference;
-import java.util.function.BooleanSupplier;
 import java.util.function.Supplier;
 import java.util.logging.Logger;
 import java.util.stream.Collectors;
@@ -345,8 +345,7 @@
       GraphInconsistencyReceiver graphInconsistencyReceiver,
       BuildOptions defaultBuildOptions,
       @Nullable PackageProgressReceiver packageProgress,
-      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier artifactResolverSupplier,
-      BooleanSupplier usesActionFileSystem) {
+      MutableArtifactFactorySupplier artifactResolverSupplier) {
     // Strictly speaking, these arguments are not required for initialization, but all current
     // callsites have them at hand, so we might as well set them during construction.
     this.evaluatorSupplier = evaluatorSupplier;
@@ -360,8 +359,7 @@
         syscalls, cyclesReporter, pkgLocator, numPackagesLoaded, this);
     this.resourceManager = ResourceManager.instance();
     this.skyframeActionExecutor =
-        new SkyframeActionExecutor(
-            actionKeyContext, statusReporterRef, this::getPathEntries, usesActionFileSystem);
+        new SkyframeActionExecutor(actionKeyContext, statusReporterRef, this::getPathEntries);
     this.fileSystem = fileSystem;
     this.directories = Preconditions.checkNotNull(directories);
     this.actionKeyContext = Preconditions.checkNotNull(actionKeyContext);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/BUILD b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/BUILD
index 8b11e78..e763c5f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/BUILD
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/BUILD
@@ -14,6 +14,10 @@
     "WindowsOsPathPolicy.java",
 ]
 
+OUTPUT_SERVICE_SOURCES = [
+    "OutputService.java",
+]
+
 java_library(
     name = "pathfragment",
     srcs = PATH_FRAGMENT_SOURCES,
@@ -38,7 +42,7 @@
         [
             "*.java",
         ],
-        exclude = PATH_FRAGMENT_SOURCES,
+        exclude = PATH_FRAGMENT_SOURCES + OUTPUT_SERVICE_SOURCES,
     ),
     visibility = ["//visibility:public"],
     exports = [
@@ -58,3 +62,18 @@
         "//third_party:jsr305",
     ],
 )
+
+java_library(
+    name = "output_service",
+    srcs = OUTPUT_SERVICE_SOURCES,
+    deps = [
+        ":pathfragment",
+        ":vfs",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib:events",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib:util",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/actions",
+        "//src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/skyframe",
+        "//third_party:guava",
+        "//third_party:jsr305",
+    ],
+)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/OutputService.java b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/OutputService.java
similarity index 64%
rename from src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/OutputService.java
rename to src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/OutputService.java
index b09e681..55cadc7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/OutputService.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/vfs/OutputService.java
@@ -12,22 +12,23 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
+package com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs;
 
+import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Action;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.BuildFailedException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.EnvironmentalExecException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ExecException;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.MetadataConsumer;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.cache.MetadataHandler;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.events.EventHandler;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.packages.Target;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.util.AbruptExitException;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.BatchStat;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.ModifiedFileSet;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
+import com.google.devtools.build.skyframe.SkyFunction;
 import java.io.IOException;
 import java.util.UUID;
+import javax.annotation.Nullable;
 
 /**
  * An OutputService retains control over the Blaze output tree, and provides a higher level of
@@ -44,11 +45,6 @@
   String getFilesSystemName();
 
   /**
-   * @return a human-readable, one word name for the service
-   */
-  String getName();
-
-  /**
    * Start the build.
    *
    * @param buildId the UUID build identifier
@@ -75,19 +71,6 @@
       throws IOException, EnvironmentalExecException;
 
   /**
-   * Stages the given tool from the package path, possibly copying it to local disk.
-   *
-   * @param tool target representing the tool to stage
-   * @return a Path pointing to the staged target
-   */
-  Path stageTool(Target tool) throws IOException;
-
-  /**
-   * @return the name of the workspace this output service controls.
-   */
-  String getWorkspace();
-
-  /**
    * @return the BatchStat instance or null.
    */
   BatchStat getBatchStatter();
@@ -118,15 +101,43 @@
    */
   void clean() throws ExecException, InterruptedException;
 
-  /**
-   * @param file the File
-   * @return true iff the file actually lives on a remote server
-   */
-  boolean isRemoteFile(Path file);
+  /** @return true iff the file actually lives on a remote server */
+  boolean isRemoteFile(Artifact file);
+
+  default boolean supportsActionFileSystem() {
+    return false;
+  }
 
   /**
-   * @param path a fully-resolved path
-   * @return true iff path is under this output service's control
+   * @param sourceDelegate filesystem for reading source files (excludes output files)
+   * @param execRootFragment absolute path fragment pointing to the execution root
+   * @param relativeOutputPath execution root relative path to output
+   * @param sourceRoots list of directories on the package path (from {@link
+   *     com.google.devtools.build.lib.pkgcache.PathPackageLocator})
+   * @param inputArtifactData information about required inputs to the action
+   * @param allowedInputs optional inputs that might be added during input discovery
+   * @param outputArtifacts required outputs of the action
+   * @return an action-scoped filesystem if {@link supportsActionFileSystem} is true
    */
-  boolean resolvedPathUnderTree(Path path);
+  @Nullable
+  default FileSystem createActionFileSystem(
+      FileSystem sourceDelegate,
+      PathFragment execRootFragment,
+      String relativeOutputPath,
+      ImmutableList<Root> sourceRoots,
+      ActionInputMap inputArtifactData,
+      Iterable<Artifact> allowedInputs,
+      Iterable<Artifact> outputArtifacts) {
+    return null;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Updates the context used by the filesystem returned by {@link createActionFileSystem}.
+   *
+   * <p>Should be called as context changes throughout action execution.
+   *
+   * @param actionFileSystem must be a filesystem returned by {@link createActionFileSystem}.
+   */
+  default void updateActionFileSystemContext(
+      FileSystem actionFileSystem, SkyFunction.Environment env, MetadataConsumer consumer) {}
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystemTest.java
deleted file mode 100644
index f155883..0000000
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ActionFileSystemTest.java
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,138 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright 2018 The Bazel Authors. All rights reserved.
-//
-// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-// You may obtain a copy of the License at
-//
-//    http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//
-// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-// limitations under the License.
-package com.google.devtools.build.lib.skyframe;
-
-import static com.google.common.truth.Truth.assertThat;
-
-import com.google.common.collect.ImmutableList;
-import com.google.common.hash.HashCode;
-import com.google.common.hash.Hashing;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInput;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputHelper;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ActionInputMap;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystem;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystemUtils;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.Path;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.PathFragment;
-import com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.inmemoryfs.InMemoryFileSystem;
-import java.io.OutputStream;
-import java.io.PrintStream;
-import java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets;
-import org.junit.Before;
-import org.junit.Test;
-import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
-import org.junit.runners.JUnit4;
-
-/**
- * Tests for {@link ActionFileSystem}.
- *
- * It would be nice to derive from
- * {@link com.google.devtools.build.lib.vfs.FileSystemTest;FileSystemTest} if/when ActionFileSystem
- * becomes sufficiently general.
- */
-@RunWith(JUnit4.class)
-public class ActionFileSystemTest {
-  private ActionFileSystem actionFS;
-  private PathFragment execRootFragment;
-  private Path outputPath;
-
-  @Before
-  public void freshFS() {
-    FileSystem delegateFS = new InMemoryFileSystem();
-    execRootFragment = PathFragment.create("/path/to/execroot");
-    String relativeOutputPath = "goog-out";
-    actionFS = new ActionFileSystem(delegateFS, execRootFragment, relativeOutputPath,
-        ImmutableList.of(), new ActionInputMap(0), ImmutableList.of(), ImmutableList.of());
-    outputPath = actionFS.getPath(execRootFragment.getRelative(relativeOutputPath));
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void testFileWrite() throws Exception {
-    String testData = "abc19";
-
-    Path file = outputPath.getRelative("foo/bar");
-    FileSystemUtils.writeContentAsLatin1(file, testData);
-    assertThat(file.getFileSize()).isEqualTo(testData.length());
-    assertThat(file.exists()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(file.stat().isFile()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(file.stat().isDirectory()).isFalse();
-
-    assertThat(file.delete()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(file.exists()).isFalse();
-    assertThat(file.delete()).isFalse();
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void testInjectUndeclaredOutput() throws Exception {
-    String testData = "abc19";
-    byte[] fileContent = testData.getBytes();
-    HashCode digest = Hashing.md5().hashBytes(fileContent);
-    Path file = outputPath.getRelative("foo/bar");
-    assertThat(file.exists()).isFalse();
-    actionFS.onInsert(asActionInput(file), digest.asBytes(), fileContent.length, 83);
-
-    assertThat(file.exists()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(file.stat().getSize()).isEqualTo(fileContent.length);
-    assertThat(file.getDigest()).isEqualTo(digest.asBytes());
-    assertThat(file.getFastDigest()).isEqualTo(digest.asBytes());
-
-    assertThat(file.delete()).isTrue();
-    assertThat(file.exists()).isFalse();
-    assertThat(file.delete()).isFalse();
-  }
-
-  private ActionInput asActionInput(Path path) {
-    return ActionInputHelper.fromPath(path.asFragment().relativeTo(execRootFragment));
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void testAppendLocalFile() throws Exception {
-    String testData = "abc";
-
-    Path file = outputPath.getRelative("foo/bar");
-    FileSystemUtils.writeContentAsLatin1(file, testData);
-    assertThat(new String(FileSystemUtils.readContentAsLatin1(file))).isEqualTo(testData);
-
-    try (OutputStream out = file.getOutputStream(true)) {
-      PrintStream printStream = new PrintStream(out);
-      printStream.append("defg");
-      printStream.flush();
-    }
-    assertThat(new String(FileSystemUtils.readContentAsLatin1(file))).isEqualTo("abcdefg");
-
-    // Now make sure we can still overwrite the file in non-append mode.
-    FileSystemUtils.writeContentAsLatin1(file, "cheesy");
-    assertThat(new String(FileSystemUtils.readContentAsLatin1(file))).isEqualTo("cheesy");
-  }
-
-  @Test
-  public void testFlushedButNotClosedFileWrite() throws Exception {
-    String testData = "abc19";
-
-    Path file = outputPath.getRelative("foo/bar");
-    try (OutputStream out = file.getOutputStream()) {
-      assertThat(file.exists()).isFalse();
-
-      out.write(testData.getBytes(StandardCharsets.ISO_8859_1));
-      assertThat(file.exists()).isFalse();
-
-      out.flush();
-      assertThat(file.getFileSize()).isEqualTo(testData.length());
-      assertThat(file.exists()).isTrue();
-      assertThat(file.stat().isFile()).isTrue();
-      assertThat(file.stat().isDirectory()).isFalse();
-    }
-    assertThat(file.getFileSize()).isEqualTo(testData.length());
-  }
-}
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
index da66c93..925056e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/ArtifactFunctionTest.java
@@ -33,6 +33,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactOwner;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactRoot;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.BasicActionLookupValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileValue;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
index ecce7ea..fbb64fe 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/RecursiveFilesystemTraversalFunctionTest.java
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 import com.google.common.collect.Sets;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactRoot;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileStateValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileValue;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
index 2b87fb9..b4075b3 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TimestampBuilderTestCase.java
@@ -41,6 +41,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactOwner;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactRoot;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.BasicActionLookupValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.BuildFailedException;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Executor;
@@ -192,8 +193,7 @@
         new SkyframeActionExecutor(
             actionKeyContext,
             new AtomicReference<>(statusReporter),
-            /*sourceRootSupplier=*/ () -> ImmutableList.of(),
-            /*usesActionFileSystem=*/ () -> false);
+            /*sourceRootSupplier=*/ () -> ImmutableList.of());
 
     Path actionOutputBase = scratch.dir("/usr/local/google/_blaze_jrluser/FAKEMD5/action_out/");
     skyframeActionExecutor.setActionLogBufferPathGenerator(
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
index b27a520..97816e3 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/google/devtools/build/lib/skyframe/TreeArtifactMetadataTest.java
@@ -33,6 +33,7 @@
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.SpecialArtifactType;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.Artifact.TreeFileArtifact;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactRoot;
+import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.ArtifactSkyKey;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.BasicActionLookupValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileArtifactValue;
 import com.google.devtools.build.lib.actions.FileValue;